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एनबीडब्ल्यूएल की 22वीं बैठक के लिए एजेंडा आइटम, 25 अप्रैल 2011 को आयोजित

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STANDING COMMITTEE OF
NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE

TWENTY SECOND MEETING

25th APRIL 2011

AGENDA NOTES

GOVERNMENT OF INDIA MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT AND FORESTS

INDEX

SL. NO AGENDA ITEM

PAGE NO. 1. Agenda Item No.1: Confirmation of the Minutes of meeting of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife held on 24th January 2011.

3
2. Agenda Item No.2:

Action taken report on the recommendations of 21st Meeting of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife held on 24th January 2011

4
3

3.1

3.2

3.3 Agenda Item No. 3:

Report of the Expert Committee on Conservation of Kolleru Lake Sanctuary

Delegation of the powers of the State Board for Wildlife to the Chairman in case of Strategic Border Roads

Agenda item proposed by Shri. Biswajit Mohanty, Member, NBWL

4.1

4.2 Agenda Item No. 4:

Proposals for diversion of PAs

Proposals for taking up activities within 10 Kms from the boundaries of Protected Areas

5 Agenda Item No.5. Any other item with the permission of the Chair

f PAs

Proposals for taking up activities within 10 Kms from the boundaries of Protected Areas

5 Agenda Item No.5. Any other item with the permission of the Chair

AGENDA NOTES FOR THE TWENTY SECOND MEETING OF THE STANDING COMMITTEE OF NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILD LIFE

Date: 25th April 2011 Venue: Paryavaran Bhawan, New Delhi.

AGENDA ITEM NO.1

Confirmation of the minutes of the 21st Meeting of Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife held on 24th January 2011.

The minutes of the 21st Meeting of Standing Committee of NBWL, held on 24.01.2011 were circulated to the members on 07.02.2011. Comments have been received from Dr T.R. Shankar Raman, Dr A.J.T. Johnsingh and Ms. Prerna Bindra. The comments/suggestions made by the members are reproduced below:

Comments received from Dr T.R. Shankar Raman:

2(3.1)(a): Framing ecologically sound policy for dealing with linear intrusions (page 2) The minutes at present do not indicate that a detailed background paper was presented at the meeting on linear intrusions. It also does not indicate some key suggestions made at the end of the presentation on the next steps forward. You also have a copy of this presentation with you already. I therefore request you to kindly add the following wording to the minutes to record these details: "Dr Shankar Raman placed a detailed background paper on the subject for the consideration of the committee.

e request you to kindly add the following wording to the minutes to record these details: "Dr Shankar Raman placed a detailed background paper on the subject for the consideration of the committee. He suggested that the policy on linear intrusions be drafted taking into consideration the scientific findings on the effects of linear intrusions on wildlife habitats. It was proposed that the scheme for linear intrusions policy should consider options for (1) prevention, (2) realignment, (3) ecological restoration, and (4) mitigation, in order of priority. He suggested that prevention and realignment should always be considered for linear intrusions in protected areas and critical habitats, ecological restoration should be considered for many defunct and disused roads and intrusions, and mitigation for existing linear intrusions in wildlife areas and for cases of linear intrusions that are unavoidable or where realignments have been considered and rejected." Agenda item 3.3 (page 8): It is currently stated that: "The Committee, after discussion, decided that permission for black topping/cementing inside National Parks and Sanctuaries should be considered on a case to case basis and threadbare analysis of the essentiality and merits of the case." As I recall, it was discussed on this (and on other matters) that the policy banning black-topping along roads should continue and the cement/concrete roads will be treated on par with black-topping as regards the ban.

iscussed on this (and on other matters) that the policy banning black-topping along roads should continue and the cement/concrete roads will be treated on par with black-topping as regards the ban. This was also discussed clearly in the case of a road where cementing was proposed by a member but unequivocally rejected by the Chairman. It was mentioned that there may be some (exceptional) cases where one may need to consider such proposals. I therefore suggest an alternate wording for this item as follows for the final minutes: "The Committee, after discussion, decided that the present prohibition of black topping of roads inside National Parks and Sanctuaries shall continue, and shall apply also to cementing and concrete roads. Proposals for such roads may be,

in exceptional cases, brought to the Standing Committee for a threadbare analysis of the essentiality and merits of the case."

Comments received from Dr A.J.T. Johnsingh: “My suggestion about Ipomoea cornea is not confined only to the protected areas but the entire Indian freshwater landscape. The District collectors should be persuaded to fight against this weed which is a huge problem in our fresh water landscapes. The ways of doing this could be discussed in the next meeting.”

Comments received from Ms. Prerna Bindra:

4.1(13) Diversion of 3.9892 ha of forest land in Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary for widening of existing 2 lane of NH-24 to 4 lane road from KM 86.00 to KM 93 in Ghaziabad District, Uttar Pradesh.

4.1(13) Diversion of 3.9892 ha of forest land in Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary for widening of existing 2 lane of NH-24 to 4 lane road from KM 86.00 to KM 93 in Ghaziabad District, Uttar Pradesh. It was pointed out by Ms Prerna Bindra that the area of Hastinapur sanctuary is 2079 sq km, and has huge human habitation-there are villages, highways etc, so huge tracts are much too degraded to be of value vis-à-vis wildlife. There are still pockets which are of immense biodiversity value, with swamp deer, leopard, jungle cat, sarus cranes, Gangetic dolphins. It will be prudent to have a site visit to understand which part of the sanctuary this—and other proposals pertaining to Hastinapur sanctuary is being impacted by the above-and other proposals, on the basis of which a decision can be made. It was assured that the area in question was not of value to wildlife, but to be on the side of caution it was agreed by the chairman that a site inspection be made and after ascertaining the facts, due permission may be given subject to the following.

4.2(3) Permission for setting up of Jaypee Super Cement Plant for 2.01 MTPA clinker production and 2.50 MTPA cement production located 2.1 kms from the Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh.

The Member-Secretary briefed the Committee regarding the proposal. Prerna Singh Bindra raised the following objections: At 2.1 km, this is very close to the Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary which is part of the Vindhya range.

briefed the Committee regarding the proposal. Prerna Singh Bindra raised the following objections: At 2.1 km, this is very close to the Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary which is part of the Vindhya range. The Vindhya-also called the Kaimur range—is the watershed of two major rivers, Son and Tons that flow into peninsular India. The sanctuary has very rich biodiversity which includes wolves, leopard, blackbuck, lesser cats, white-backed vulture, and is the breeding site of long-billed vultures. Kaimur sanctuary has prehistoric caves dating back to 4,000 years which depict elements of nature, ie, stars, moon, river and animals which interestingly includes rhinos. The cement plant will also be fed by mining which will devastate the ecology of the sanctuary. The map depicts the proximity of the cement plant to Son river which borders the sanctuary. The MoEF’s guidelines for Eco-Sensitive Zone themselves recommend that there be no mining in the ESAs—and at 2 km the cement plant would very much be within the impact zone. There is already tremendous pressure on the Vindhya range with stone crushing and limestone industry—leases have been given, and large scale illegal mining and stone crushing is reported. The sanctuary represents perhaps the last protected tact in this mountain range.

The Standing Committee of NBWL may take a view on the above comments/suggestions while confirming the minutes of meeting held on 24.01.2011.

the last protected tact in this mountain range.

The Standing Committee of NBWL may take a view on the above comments/suggestions while confirming the minutes of meeting held on 24.01.2011.

AGENDA ITEM NO.2

The Action Taken Report on the decisions of the Standing Committee of NBWL taken in its 21st meeting held on 24.01.2011 is appended below:

Agenda Item No. Action Taken 2[4.2(4)]: Diversion of 7.2871 ha of forest land for construction of Ropeway from Bhavnath Taleti to Ambaji Temple in Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary by Usha Breco Ltd, Ahmedabad, Gujarat.
The site inspection report of Dr Divyabhanusinh Chavda with respect to the proposal for diversion of 7.2871 ha of forest land for construction of ropeway from Bhavnath Taleti to Ambaji Temple in Girnar Wildlife Sanctuary by Usha Breco Ltd, Ahmedabad, Gujarat was considered by the Standing Committee of NBWL in its 21st meeting held on 24th January 2011, wherein the Chairman desired that he and Dr Nita Shah would visit the proposed project area and thereafter take a decision.

A press note released by the office of Hon’ble Chairman in this regard is attached as ANNEXURE-1. (Page to ) 2[4(B)(12)]Proposal for denotification of forest area of Radhanagri Sanctuary for Savarde minor irrigation project.

airman in this regard is attached as ANNEXURE-1. (Page to ) 2[4(B)(12)]Proposal for denotification of forest area of Radhanagri Sanctuary for Savarde minor irrigation project.

The proposal for denotification of 14.12 ha area (10.98 ha submerged area and 3.14 ha dam construction) of Radhanagri Sanctuary for Savarde minor irrigation project, was considered by the Standing Committee of NBWL in its 20th meeting held on 13th October 2010, wherein the Chairman had requested the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra to examine the recommendations made by Dr Asad Rahmani in his site inspection report. During the 21st meeting of the Standing Committee of NBWL held on 24th January 2011, the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra had clarified that consent of State Government was yet to be issued. In view of this, the Committee had requested the Chief Wildlife Warden to convey formal acceptance of conditions by the Government of Maharashtra to MoEF and a final view

nt was yet to be issued. In view of this, the Committee had requested the Chief Wildlife Warden to convey formal acceptance of conditions by the Government of Maharashtra to MoEF and a final view

would be taken thereafter. Response from the Chief Wildlife Warden, Maharashtra is awaited.

2[4(2)] Proposal seeking permission for construction of fencing and patrol road along the Indo-Bangladesh Border in Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mizoram. The proposal seeking permission for construction of fencing and patrol road along the Indo-Bangladesh Border in Dampa Tiger Reserve, Mizoram was considered during the meeting of Standing Committee of NBWL, wherein it was informed that site inspection by the team comprising Dr M.K. Ranjitsinh and Dr Rajesh Gopal was yet to be conducted.

Since the site inspection had not been conducted, it was decided to defer the matter to the next meeting of the Committee. Site inspection report is awaited. 2[3.1]: Wildlife Conservation Issues (a) Framing ecologically sound policy for dealing with linear intrusions.

The Committee, after discussions, had decided that draft guidelines with respect to laying of transmission lines and construction of roads impacting the Protected Areas be framed in the first instance. The Committee had assigned the task of preparation of draft guidelines to Dr Shankar Raman and a view would be taken once the draft guidelines were ready.

The draft guidelines are awaited from Dr Shankar Raman.

uld be taken once the draft guidelines were ready.

The draft guidelines are awaited from Dr Shankar Raman.

The Committee had decided to take up this matter in its next meeting.

(f) Central funding to be restricted to Protected Areas directly under the Wildlife Wing and managed by trained officers The Committee decided to take up the matter in the next meeting.

2[4.1(9)] Construction and upgradation of following 12 existing rural roads under PMGSY to provide all weather road connectivity to the villages in Bagdara Sanctuary, Madhya Pradesh.

During the 20th Meeting of the Standing Committee of NBWL held on 13th October 2010, while discussing proposals for construction and upgradation of 12 existing rural roads under PMGSY to provide all weather road connectivity to the villages in Bagdara Sanctuary, it was decided that a team comprising Ms. Prerna Bindra, Shri Kishore Rithe, Satpuda Foundation, Amravati and Dr T.R. Shankar Raman, NCF, Mysore would conduct a site inspection and submit a report to the Committee.

Since the members had not undertaken the inspection, the agenda item was deferred.

Site inspection report is still awaited. 2[4.1 (17)] Diversion of 0.205 ha of forest land from Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary for construction of Sang Naya Bazar water supply scheme from Lalichok to Sang in East Sikkim.

still awaited. 2[4.1 (17)] Diversion of 0.205 ha of forest land from Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary for construction of Sang Naya Bazar water supply scheme from Lalichok to Sang in East Sikkim.

2[4.1 (18)] Diversion of 1.9718 ha of forest land from Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary for construction of water supply scheme from Mithuney to Rhenock in (South) Sikkim.

2[4.1 (19)] Diversion of 0.50 ha of forest land from Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary for construction of water supply scheme from Jelep la stream to Kupup in (North) Sikkim.

During the 20th Meeting of the Standing Committee of NBWL held on 13th October 2010, while discussing three proposals for construction of drinking water supply line passing through Fambonglho and Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuaries in Sikkim, it was decided that a team comprising Ms. Prerna Bindra and Dr A.J. T. Johnsingh would conduct a site inspection and submit a report to the Committee. A final view on the three proposals would be taken on receipt of the report of the team.

Since the members had not undertaken the inspection, the agenda item was deferred. Site inspection was conducted by Dr A.J.T Johnsingh alone and his report is attached as ANNEXURE-2 (Page to ).

the members had not undertaken the inspection, the agenda item was deferred. Site inspection was conducted by Dr A.J.T Johnsingh alone and his report is attached as ANNEXURE-2 (Page to ).

2[4.2 (5)] Diversion of 879.666 ha (840.00 ha of forest land and 39.666 ha of revenue forest land) for Mandla North underground mining coal block in respect of M/s Jaiprakash Associates Ltd, Distt. Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh

The Standing Committee of NBWL in its meeting held on 13th October 2010, while discussing the proposal for diversion of 879.666 ha (840.00 ha of forest land and 39.666 ha of revenue forest land) for Mandla North underground mining coal block in respect of M/s Jaiprakash Associates Ltd, Distt. Chhindwara, Madhya Pradesh had decided that the proposal be referred back to the NTCA for its comments within 1 month’s time. The Director, Wildlife Institute of India and Shri Kishore Rithe, Satpuda Foundation, Amravati, would also examine the proposal and give their suggestions to the NTCA.

Since the report was still awaited, it was decided to defer the matter to next meeting.

The report of NTCA is still awaited 2[4.2 (6)] Diversion of land for lime stone mines due to location of Son Gharial Crocodile Sanctuary within 10 km of the Mining lease, Madhya Pradesh. (i) Badgawna Revenue, Distt. Sindhi- 68.910 ha. (Revenue land) (ii)Majhigawan Extension, Distt. Sidhi-54.825 ha (Forest land) (iii) Hinauti Extension, Distt. Satna, 258.864 ha (Forest land).

. (i) Badgawna Revenue, Distt. Sindhi- 68.910 ha. (Revenue land) (ii)Majhigawan Extension, Distt. Sidhi-54.825 ha (Forest land) (iii) Hinauti Extension, Distt. Satna, 258.864 ha (Forest land). The Standing Committee of NBWL in its meeting held on 13th October 2010, while discussing three proposals involving mining in area falling within 10 Kms from Son Gharial Sanctuary, decided that Dr Asad Rahmani would conduct a site inspection, and thereafter a view would be taken based on his report.

Since the report was still awaited, it was decided to defer the matter to next meeting.

Site inspection report of Dr Rahmani is awaited.

4.1 (3) Diversion of 145.26 ha of forest land falling in Dalma Wildlife Sanctuary for Subarnrekha Multipurpose Irrigation Project, Jharkhand.

After discussions, the Committee decided to recommend the proposal subject to receipt of a communication from the State Government of Jharkhand intimating its acceptance of all conditions stipulated by the Standing Committee while considering the proposal in its meeting held on 25th

mmunication from the State Government of Jharkhand intimating its acceptance of all conditions stipulated by the Standing Committee while considering the proposal in its meeting held on 25th

August 2005, and also the conditions laid down by the Sen Committee. It was also decided that a Monitoring Committee, comprising some members of Standing Committee of NBWL and the Ministry, would closely watch the compliance of the conditions. The State Government would also regularly submit a quarterly progress report of compliance to the Standing Committee of NBWL.

A monitoring committee has been constituted vide O.M. no 6-95/2010 WL dated 29th March 2011 (ANNEXURE-3) (Page to ). 4.1 (6) Permission for 330 MW Dholpur Gas based combined cycle thermal power project stage-II drawing water from National Chambal Ghariyal Sanctuary at Dholpur, Rajasthan.

The Committee, after discussion, decided to await the combined report of the Wildlife Institute of India, Bombay Natural History Society and the World Wide Fund for Nature-India, regarding permissible water intake from Chambal River for the thermal power project. The study report is still awaited.

4.2(1) Proposal for construction of Funicular Trolly system and approach road at Malanggad, Ambernath, Maharashtra.

The Committee during discussion found that the approval of Matheran Eco-sensitive Monitoring Committee was not obtained, and, therefore, sought a clarification from the RE Division of the Ministry in this regard.

ing discussion found that the approval of Matheran Eco-sensitive Monitoring Committee was not obtained, and, therefore, sought a clarification from the RE Division of the Ministry in this regard. The Committee decided to defer the proposal.

The RE Division has informed that the Chairman, Monitoring Committee has given his clarification on the proposal. The important aspects of the reply of the Chairman is appended as ANNEXURE-4 (Page ).

4.2(2) Proposal for development of 8 lane access controlled expressway on right bank of Upper Ganga Canal (UGC) from Sanauta Bridge (Bulandshahar) to near Purkazi (Distt. Muzaffarnagar) near Uttar Pradesh-Uttarakhand border.

The Committee, after discussion decided to await the report of the Regional CCF (Central), Lucknow in this regard, before taking a final view in the matter.

The report of the Regional CCF (Central), Lucknow is still awaited. 4.2(3) Permission for setting up of Jaypee Super Cement Plant for 2.01 MTPA clinker production and 2.50 MTPA cement production located 2.1 kms from the Kaimur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh. The Committee, after discussion decided that a team comprising a senior officer from MoEF and Ms. Prerna Bindra, Member, Standing Committee of NBWL and Shri A.K. Srivastava, Inspector General of Forests (WL) conducted site inspection on 16th April 2011.

Report being circulated during the meeting.

, Standing Committee of NBWL and Shri A.K. Srivastava, Inspector General of Forests (WL) conducted site inspection on 16th April 2011.

Report being circulated during the meeting.

AGENDA ITEM NO.3

3.1

REPORT OF THE EXPERT COMMITTEE ON CONSERVATION OF KOLLERU LAKE SANCTUARY

During the 13th Meeting of Standing Committee of NBWL held on 12th December 2008, Dr Asad Rahmani, Member, had raised the issue of reducing the area of Kolleru Lake Sanctuary in Andhra Pradesh from +5 contours to +3 contours. Thereafter, Hon’ble MEF had visited Kolleru Lake Sanctuary on 28th February 2010 and had interacted with all stakeholders in the matter. The issue was also discussed in the Standing Committee of NBWL in its meeting held on 12th April 2010, wherein it was decided to constitute an Expert Committee to study the issue in greater detail and to recommend to the Government the merits and the demerits of the proposal of the Andhra Pradesh Assembly for reduction of area of the Sanctuary.

The Ministry had, accordingly, constituted the Expert Committee under the Chairmanship of Dr Azeez, Director, SACON on 29th April 2010 for a term of 3 months from the date of the order. The constitution and Terms of Reference of the Expert Committee are appended below:

Dr. Azeez, Director, SACON, Coimbatore Chairman 2. Prof. K. Kameshwar Rao, Dept of Environmental Studies, Andhra University Member 3. Mr. Ashok Kumar, IAS (Retd.), working on Environmental Management issues Member 4. Dr B.C.

airman 2. Prof. K. Kameshwar Rao, Dept of Environmental Studies, Andhra University Member 3. Mr. Ashok Kumar, IAS (Retd.), working on Environmental Management issues Member 4. Dr B.C. Choudhary, Professor, Dept of Wetlands, WII, Dehradun Member 5. Mr. Sanjay Upadhyay, Managing Partner, Enviro Legal Defence Firm Member 6. Dr VNVK Sastry, Ex-Director, TCR&TI, Hyderabad Member 7. Shri K Mrutyunjaya Reddy, DG, APSRSAC, Hyderabad Member

Terms of Reference:

(1) To study the issue in greater detail both from the perspective of the protection of the livelihoods of the local fisherman and farming communities and the conservation and protection of the wetlands of kolleru and recommend to the government on the merits and demerits of the proposal of the Andhra Pradesh Assembly for reduction of the Wildlife Sanctuary from the contour 5 to contour 3.

(2) The committee would tour extensively in the area and interact with all the stakeholders including the public representatives of the area. They would study the issue from a holistic view keeping the interests of both the local people and the environment.

(3) The committee would also look into the matter of paying compensation to the private landowners who are losing their lands in the Wildlife Sanctuary.

(4) The committee would be given three months time to give their final recommendations and based on the recommendation of the committee, the government will take the final decision.

e Sanctuary.

(4) The committee would be given three months time to give their final recommendations and based on the recommendation of the committee, the government will take the final decision.

(5) Get a quick scientific survey of the entire area done through satellite mapping to get an actual picture of the status of the lake and the alignment of the contour lines.

Thereafter, on the request of Dr Azeez, the term of the Committee was further extended up to 10th November 2010. Again, on request of Dr. Azeez, the term of the Committee was further extended up to 31st January 2011. The Report of the Expert Committee is at ANNEXURE-5 (page to ).

The Chairman of the Expert Committee would be presenting the report before the Standing Committee of NBWL for taking a view in the matter in the 22nd Meeting on 25.04.2011.

3.2

DELEGATION OF THE POWERS OF THE STATE BOARD FOR WILDLIFE TO THE CHAIRMAN IN CASE OF STRATEGIC BORDER ROADS

One of the decisions taken during the meeting of the Empowered Committee on Border Infrastructure (ECBI) held under the Chairmanship of the Cabinet Secretary, was that the Ministry of Environment and Forests may examine the possibility of delegation of powers from State Board for Wildlife to the Minister concerned in the case of strategic border roads.

, was that the Ministry of Environment and Forests may examine the possibility of delegation of powers from State Board for Wildlife to the Minister concerned in the case of strategic border roads.

It is mentioned that Section 29 of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 provides that any non-forestry activity inside a Sanctuary requires recommendation of State Board for Wildlife, while with respect to activity in the National Park , the recommendation of National Board for Wildlife is required. However, by virtue of
the order of Hon’ble Supreme Court dated 9th May 2002 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 337/1995, any activity involving Section 29 needs to be referred to the Standing Committee of NBWL.

In some of the States, there has been a lag in constitution of State Board for Wildlife and the defence/security organizations like the Border Roads Organization, ITBP, etc had requested that due to non convening of meetings of State Board for Wildlife, their proposals involving Wildlife Sanctuaries get invariably delayed.

The Standing Committee of NBWL may like to take a view whether the powers of the State Board for Wildlife could be delegated to the Chief Minister (Chairman of SBWL) in case of strategic border road proposals.

of NBWL may like to take a view whether the powers of the State Board for Wildlife could be delegated to the Chief Minister (Chairman of SBWL) in case of strategic border road proposals.

3.3

AGENDA ITEM PROPOSED BY DR. BISWAJIT MOHANTY, MEMBER, NATIONAL BOARD FOR WILDLIFE

Declaration of ESA:

Most states have yet to declare and notify the ecologically sensitive areas/ecologically fragile areas under Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 within 10 kms of areas bordering PAs. A status report should be placed before the Standing Committee to assess the level of implementation by the State. Standing Committee may also propose steps which should be taken to get the States to declare the ESA zones forthwith before further loss of such habitats to development projects.

Reason: Most States are proposing development projects including polluting industries, mines, reservoirs adjacent to PAs. Without the legal protection being accorded to the surrounding zones, such projects cannot be rejected. Allowing these projects will imperil the wildlife living in the PAs and their habitat.

Elephant electrocution deaths:

The Standing Committee should form a sub committee comprising of members from NBWL, Power Ministry, CEA to assess level of implementation of existing guidelines for protective measures/safety features to be installed in rural electrification distribution systems to protect elephants.

er Ministry, CEA to assess level of implementation of existing guidelines for protective measures/safety features to be installed in rural electrification distribution systems to protect elephants. The Standing Committee should also come up with measures to add to the existing guidelines framed by Central Electricity Authority to comply with the suggestions contained in the report submitted by the expert group set up by the MOEF to probe into causes of electrocution deaths of elephants in Orissa.

Reasons: Under the Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutkaran Yojana (RGGVY), the Ministry of Power, Govt. of India has provided massive funds to states to boost the rural power network to enable remote villages to get electricity including. While such a program is welcome to provide the rural residents with power, without adequate safeguards, this shall result in huge loss of wildlife, especially the highly endangered elephants. Already Orissa has lost 90 elephants due to electrocution during the last 10 years most of which could have been avoided if adequate safety guidelines had been adopted and followed.

Protection of wildlife from CAMPA work practices:

The Standing Committee should set up a sub committee comprising of NBWL members, MOEF officers and WII Scientists to tour the country in major CAMPA beneficiary states of Orissa, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Madhy Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra to verify the harmful plantation practices or other civil works carried out inside reserve forests and PAs.

neficiary states of Orissa, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Madhy Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra to verify the harmful plantation practices or other civil works carried out inside reserve forests and PAs. This sub-committee can file reports with the MOEF about such activities that imperil wildlife and MOEF can issue appropriate directions to the States.

Reasons: Under the CAMPA program, many harmful forestry practices are being carried out for plantations, clearing and burning of weeds, civil works including plush rest houses, barracks in the core areas of Tiger Reserves, PAs, etc. Such activities impact wildlife and its habitat. There is no monitoring by the MOEF about such activities in the forest areas. We have found that in Orissa, there is rampant burning of forest undergrowth to clear them for plantations. This destroys ground dwelling fauna including jungle fowl, hares, mongoose, snakes, turtles, etc. Similarly, cutting of creepers like bahunia, etc. which are useful fodder species for elephants is leading to increase in man elephant conflict.

AGENDA ITEM NO.4

4.1. Proposals for diversion of PAs

FRESH PROPOSAL FOR DIVERSION OF FOREST LAND OF NATIONAL PARKS AND SANCTUARIES.

After the 21st Meeting of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife held on 24th January 2011, five proposals have been received in the Wildlife Division.

The details of the proposals are at ANNEXURE- 6 (page to )

or Wildlife held on 24th January 2011, five proposals have been received in the Wildlife Division.

The details of the proposals are at ANNEXURE- 6 (page to )

4.1.

Proposals for taking up activities outside but within 10 km from the boundary of the Protected Areas

After the 21st meeting of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife held on 24th January 2011, one proposal has been received in the Wildlife Division with respect to taking up activities outside but within 10 km from the boundary of the Protected Area.

The details of the proposal are at ANNEXURE- 7 (page to )

AGENDA ITEM NO.5

ANY OTHER ITEM WITH THE PERMISSION OF THE CHAIR

Report by Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh, on visit to Sikkim in mid March 2011, related to the three proposals to draw drinking water from two Wildlife Sanctuaries. There were three requests, from the Government of Sikkim, to draw water for Public use from three sources in two Wildlife Sanctuaries, (from Jelepla stream in the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, North Range to Kupup bazaar; Chuba (Mithuney) Khola in the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, South Range to Rhenock town and from Lalichok spring in the Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, West Range to Sang bazaar). All these project sites are in the East district of Sikkim. These, as proposals, 17, 18 and 19 in Annexure I, came for discussion in the 20th meeting, held on 13th October 2010.

ge to Sang bazaar). All these project sites are in the East district of Sikkim. These, as proposals, 17, 18 and 19 in Annexure I, came for discussion in the 20th meeting, held on 13th October 2010.
The water from Jelepla stream is required for a population of about 2000 (Bhutias & Nepalis), settled in Kupup bazaar, at an altitude of 4250 m (14,300 ft) in the North Western corner of the Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary. Presently, this population obtains drinking water by using yaks to carry water from far off places. Periodically, Defence units, stationed in the area, also bring water in tankers for this population. The proposal is to bring raw water using 100mm dia. D.I. (Ductile Iron) pipe from Jelepla stream, which shall be underground below 30 cm (minimum), except at very steep terrain or on huge boulders etc. The total length of the pipeline is 5 km from the bazaar, in which 3 km falls within the Sanctuary. An intake headwork shall be constructed at the point where water will be drawn, for which the area required is 56.70 sq.m.
Rhenock town (present population is about 9,500 and predicted population in the year 2039 will be 17,500), is reported to suffer as a result of scarcity of water. The proposal is to bring water from Mithuney khola, using 150 mm dia. DI and Electro-steel pipeline for the length of 30 km, in which 12.90 km will traverse the Sanctuary. The pipeline shall be laid below 30 cm from ground level (minimum), except at unavoidable contour.

and Electro-steel pipeline for the length of 30 km, in which 12.90 km will traverse the Sanctuary. The pipeline shall be laid below 30 cm from ground level (minimum), except at unavoidable contour. The proposal for bringing drinking water to Sang bazaar, which has a population about 5000, is from Lalichok spring in the Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, West Range. The pipeline will be of 100 mm G.I. (Galvanized Iron) and it will traverse a total distance of 17.760 km, of which 550 m. will be through the Sanctuary. A small cemented intake tank will be constructed at the point from where the water will be tapped. The pipeline shall be underground 30 cm (minimum), except at difficult terrain. In the meeting held on 13th Oct, 2010, it was decided that Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh and Ms. PrernaBindra, up with appropriate recommendations. Due to prior commitments, the field visit could be planned only for mid March 2011. Ms. Bindra could not make the trip due to health reasons, and Dr. A.J.T. Johnsingh visited the areas from 14th to 16th March 2011. During his visit to Kupup bazaar on 14th March 2011, Dr. Johnsingh was accompanied by officers from the Forest Dept; (Mr. Karma Legshey, Joint Director, Mr. Prahlad Pradhan, ACF-Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, Mr. Pawan Subba, Range Officer-Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary), and Officials from Water Security and Public Health and Engineering Department; (Mrs. Shanti Tamang, Divisional Engineer, Mr. M.K. Mohra, Assistant Engineer and Mr. Mohan Gurung, Junior Engineer).

and Officials from Water Security and Public Health and Engineering Department; (Mrs. Shanti Tamang, Divisional Engineer, Mr. M.K. Mohra, Assistant Engineer and Mr. Mohan Gurung, Junior Engineer). The team was met by a five member team from Kupup Eco-Development Committee (EDC), which included Mrs. Kesang Dechen,

President, and Mrs. Dechen Bhutia, Vice President. Several members from the village, including the panchayat members, also met the team. The landscape around Kupup, more or less has the semblance of cold desert. The wildlife, the team saw, was Snow pigeon (Columba leuconota), Ruddy shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea) and Chinese/Common coot (Fulica atra). Other than Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), no other large mammals is reported from this area. Therefore drawing water from Jelepla stream for use by Kupup population, would not affect either the habitat or the wildlife of the area. The proposal to bring water from Jelepla stream to Kupup bazaar is recommended. The valley in which Mithuney Khola flows, was visited on 15th March, 2011. Forest Officials, (names already given), and officials from Water Security and Public Health and Engineering Department, (instead of Junior Engineer Mr. Mohan Gurung, Mr Tilak Pradhan), formed part of the team. Large number of EDC members from Dalapchen, Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary, which included Mr. Mani Prasad Rai (President), was also part of the team. The three and a half hour trek to the valley, (c.6500 ft) from the Aritar village, (c.5000 ft) was tough.

dlife Sanctuary, which included Mr. Mani Prasad Rai (President), was also part of the team. The three and a half hour trek to the valley, (c.6500 ft) from the Aritar village, (c.5000 ft) was tough. The large mammals reported from the area are red panda (Ailurus fulgens), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), serow (icornis sumatraensis), wild pig (Sus scrofa, diggings were seen), black bear (Ursus thibetanus), leopard (Panthera pardus, possibly one scat was seen) and also clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa). Nearly twenty feral cattle from the adjoining West Bengal are reported to occur in the area. Dung and tracks of these cattle were seen. Kalij (Lophura leucomelanos) are reported from this area. All along the trail there were numerous seepages and rivulets gushing with water, (March and April are reported to be drier months in Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary). Therefore, drawing water from the Mithuney Khola to the growing population of Rhenock, will not affect either the wildlife or the habitat of the Sanctuary. In fact, after the removal of cattle camps from the Sanctuary in 2004-05, and the cardamom (Ammomum subulatum) plantations, the habitat is on the way to recovery. Planting and protection of trees (eg., Acer campbellii, Bucklandia populnea, Castanopsis indica and Prunus napalensis), all along the periphery of the sanctuary where the impact from the villagers were more in the past, by the Forest Dept and the EDC are also in progress. The proposal to draw water from Mithuney Khola to Rhenock town is recommended.

ctuary where the impact from the villagers were more in the past, by the Forest Dept and the EDC are also in progress. The proposal to draw water from Mithuney Khola to Rhenock town is recommended. On 16th March, 2011, the team accompanied by Officials of the Forest Department (Mr. Karma Legshey, JD and Mr. Jigmee Bhutia, Range Officer-Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary, West Range), and of the Water Security and Public Health Engineering Department, led by Mrs. Shanti Tamang, Divisional Engineer, made an exhausting trek of two hours to reach the valley where the Lalichok spring is situated (c.6200 ft). The team was also accompanied by several EDC members of Sang village, which included Mr. Karma Namgyal Bhutia (President). The wildlife reported from the area are black bear, serow, goral (Nemorhaedus goral), barking deer, leopard (two goats were reported to have been recently killed by leopard), Satyr tragopan (Tragopan satyra) and kalij. Before the climb, along the road (c.5400 ft), the team saw three rivulets with water which, are reported to arise from the same source from which the water is proposed to be drawn. This proposal for drawing water from Lalichok spring to Sang Bazar is recommended.

vulets with water which, are reported to arise from the same source from which the water is proposed to be drawn. This proposal for drawing water from Lalichok spring to Sang Bazar is recommended.

In conclusion all the three proposals to draw water from Jelepla stream in Pangolakha WLS, North to Kupup bazaar; Chuba (Mithuney) Khola in Pangolakha WLS, South to Rhenock town and Lalichok spring in Fambonglho WLS, West to Sang bazaar, are recommended. The enthusiasm of EDC members from Pangolakha Wildlife Sanctuary and Fambonglho Wildlife Sanctuary was appreciable. In the latter Sanctuary we also met a former poacher who is now working very closely with the Forest Department to strengthen protection. May be the best way by which these two Sanctuaries can contribute to the welfare of the people, is by providing indispensable life-giving water. In turn we can try and persuade the people to render all possible support to, protect the sanctuaries from threats such as grazing, fire, timber smuggling, uncontrolled firewood extraction and poaching.

Dr A.J.T.Johnsingh, 25th March, 2011, Bangalore.

possible support to, protect the sanctuaries from threats such as grazing, fire, timber smuggling, uncontrolled firewood extraction and poaching.

Dr A.J.T.Johnsingh, 25th March, 2011, Bangalore.

EXTRACTS OF THE LETTER OF THE CHAIRMAN, MONITORING COMMITTEE, MATHERAN ECO-SENSITIVE ZONE ON THE PROPOSAL FOR CONSTRUCTION OF FUNICULAR TROLLEY SYSTEM AND APPROACH ROAD AT MALANGGAD, MAHARASHTRA

The proposal was considered by the Monitoring Committee of Matheran Eco-Sensitive Zone at its meeting held on 25th May 2010 wherein it was decided that the proposal should be technically examined by Mrs. Kirtida Unawalla, an expert member of the Monitoring Committee.
Mrs. Kirida Unawalla examined the proposal and suggested certain modifications with respect to the drawings, structural changes, and aesthetics.
Accordingly, the drawings were revised and were submitted by the Executive Engineer (PWD), construction Division, Thane, to the Monitoring Committee.
The revised drawings were considered by the Monitoring Committee in its meeting held on 29th January 2011 at Matheran. The Monitoring Committee had recommended the proposal for approval by the Ministry with the following suggestions:

(i) The built form should not be more than 2 floors. (ii) The total height of each floor should not be more than 4 meters (clear). (iii) The carriage way may be loftier and just sufficient to accommodate the special facility for hoisting, mounting, etc.

) The total height of each floor should not be more than 4 meters (clear). (iii) The carriage way may be loftier and just sufficient to accommodate the special facility for hoisting, mounting, etc. (iv) The built form shall be covered in a sloping roof of adequate gradient (not more than 22 degrees, except the carriage way area which may be steeper) and rise above the first floor level. (v) A compatible finishing material and colour scheme may be applied with architectural format. (vi) The party should submit reports of the work done both to MoEF and to the Monitoring Committee as well.

Report on the proposal for downsizing the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary
(+5 to +3 feet contour)

By P A Azeez, S Ashok Kumar, B C Choudhury, VNVK Sastry, Sanjay Upadhyay, K Mruthyunjaya Reddy and K Kameshwara Rao

Submitted to
The Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of India

April 2011

ii AFFILIATIONS

Dr P A Azeez Director Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History Coimbatore – 641108, Tamil Nadu Email: salimali@vsnl.com

Mr S Ashok Kumar, IAS (Retd)
Plot No: 491, Road No: 10 Jubliee Hill, Hyderabad – 500 033 Email: ashokkumar1932@yahoo.co.in

Prof B C Choudhury Wildlife Institute of India P B No. 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun – 248 001 Email: bcc@wii.gov.in

Mr.

10 Jubliee Hill, Hyderabad – 500 033 Email: ashokkumar1932@yahoo.co.in

Prof B C Choudhury Wildlife Institute of India P B No. 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun – 248 001 Email: bcc@wii.gov.in

Mr. Sanjay Upadhyay Advocate - Supreme Court of India and Managing Partner Enviro Legal Defence Firm, Noida, UP Email: sanjay@eldfindia.com, su@vsnl.com

Dr V N V K Sastry 510, Green Block, My Home Rainbow Apartment, Toli Chowki, Hyderabad – 500008 Email: vnvksastry@gmail.com

Prof. K. Kameswara Rao Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Science & Technology Andhra University, Visakhapatnam - 530 003 Email: kameswar85@yahoo.com

Dr K Mruthyunjaya Reddy Director General, AP State Remote Sensing Application Centre (APSRSAC) 8th Floor, Swarna Jayanthi Complex, Ameerpet, SR Nagar (Post) Hyderabad - 500 038 Email: kmruthyu@yahoo.com

CONTENTS

Executive Summary ....................................................................................................... 1 1 Preface .................................................................................................................. 10 2 Operational strategy of the committee ................................................................. 12 3 The Kolleru Lake setting ..................................................................................... 15 3.1 Historical perspective................................................................................... 16 3.2 The catchment and geomorphology of the basin .........................................

storical perspective................................................................................... 16 3.2 The catchment and geomorphology of the basin ......................................... 16 3.3 Demography ................................................................................................. 20 3.4 Socio-economic set-up and livelihood changes of the area ......................... 22 3.5 Ecological set-up .......................................................................................... 26 4 Land use changes and associated threats to the Kolleru ecosystem .................... 40 4.1 Land use changes at Kolleru on government initiative ................................ 40 4.2 Encroachments and associated issues .......................................................... 49 4.3 Water diversion and water pollution ............................................................ 50 4.4 Other threats ................................................................................................. 57 4.5 Recap of major drivers for the land use changes ......................................... 60 4.6 Ecological impacts of changing environment .............................................. 63 5 Kolleru lake - conservation and management history .......................................... 71 6 Legal issues related to the sanctuary notification ................................................ 76 6.1 Legal history of Kolleru Sanctuary ..............................................................

ssues related to the sanctuary notification ................................................ 76 6.1 Legal history of Kolleru Sanctuary .............................................................. 76 6.2 The process of making part of Kolleru a PA under the WLP Act ............... 80 6.3 2001: Jaganath vs. Union of India applicability on agriculturists…. .......... 85 6.4 April 2002: Boundary correction of Kolleru: Formal recognition..villages 85 6.5 August 2002: Designation of Kolleru as Ramsar Site ................................. 86 6.6 July 2006: Permission for traditional fishing …. ......................................... 87 6.7 2006: Letter of Collector, Krishna and Advocates’ Committee Report ..... 87 6.8 April 2007: Review meeting of Kolleru lake post demolition ..................... 88 6.9 September 2007: Permission for Freshwater Aquaculture .. ....................... 88 6.10 Ramsar Site: extent and national obligations ............................................... 89 6.11 2010: The coming of Wetland Regulations, 2010 ....................................... 90 6.12 Some legal concerns and legal implications of the findings in the field ..... 95 7 Operation Kolleru .............................................................................................. 102 7.1 Demolition of aqua farms and unauthorized constructions ....................... 102 7.2 Compensation and R & R Policy issues ....................................................

......... 102 7.1 Demolition of aqua farms and unauthorized constructions ....................... 102 7.2 Compensation and R & R Policy issues .................................................... 108 7.3 Post operation Kolleru and media coverage .............................................. 109 7.4 Government’s commitment to restore and protect the lake ....................... 111 7.5 Review of post operation alternative livelihood programmes ................... 113 7.6 Potential alternative sources of livelihood ................................................. 116 8 Field consultations and exploring issues............................................................ 122 8.1 Representations - salient points ................................................................. 122 8.2 Merits and demerits of the demand for resizing ........................................ 129 9 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 140 9.1 Contours and boundaries............................................................................ 140 9.2 Ecological / biological ............................................................................... 141 9.3 Pollution management ............................................................................... 142 9.4 Catchment area treatment .......................................................................... 143 9.5 Hydrological ..............................................................................................

atment .......................................................................... 143 9.5 Hydrological .............................................................................................. 143 9.6 Administrative............................................................................................ 145

ii 9.7 Legal .......................................................................................................... 145 9.8 R&R actions ............................................................................................... 146 9.9 General ....................................................................................................... 149 9.10 Concluding remarks ................................................................................... 149 10 Acknowledgement ......................................................................................... 151 11 References / Bibliography* ............................................................................ 153 11.1 Court documents, letters etc ....................................................................... 159 11.2 Minutes of meetings ................................................................................... 159 11.3 News papers / TV....................................................................................... 159 11.4 Representations with specific information*............................................... 160 12 Appendices .....................................................................................................

ons with specific information*............................................... 160 12 Appendices ..................................................................................................... 161

TABLES Table 1: Mandal wise demographic details of Kolleru wild life sanctuary ................ 20 Table 2: SC/ST proportions in Kolleru habitations ..................................................... 22 Table 3: Literacy in Kolleru region ............................................................................. 22 Table 4: Literacy rates for the districts ........................................................................ 23 Table 5: Inflows into Kolleru Lake .............................................................................. 28 Table 6: Water spread area of the lake Kolleru ........................................................... 29 Table 7: Approximate water storage in the lake Kolleru ............................................. 30 Table 8: Rain fall in the area (millimeters) .................................................................. 33 Table 9: Number of birds belonging to major families ................................................ 34 Table 10: Some locations of bird congregation in Kolleru .......................................... 34 Table 11: Land use land cover changes in Kolleru lake area (in hectares) .................. 42 Table 12: Area under aquaculture within different contours .......................................

34 Table 11: Land use land cover changes in Kolleru lake area (in hectares) .................. 42 Table 12: Area under aquaculture within different contours ....................................... 42 Table 13: Patta (Zerayati or Ryotwari) lands falling…..(below +5 feet MSL) ........... 44 Table 14: Ownership Patta (Zerayati or Ryotwari) lands …under +3 feet MSL......... 44 Table 15: Villages that falls in flooding zone at different contours ............................ 45 Table 16: Paddy crop inundated in September 2010, Kaikallur Mandal ..................... 45 Table 17: D-form Pattas in the sanctuary area ............................................................. 47 Table 18: Mandal wise boundary discrepancies of the Kolleru WLS ......................... 72 Table 19: Conditions for loans ................................................................................... 114 Table 20: ALP scheme implementation ..................................................................... 115 Table 21. Representation submitted to the committee during its field visits ............. 122

FIGURES Figure 1: The locations (purple triangles) of the public meeting ................................. 13 Figure 2: Route map of the field visits ........................................................................ 14 Figure 3: Geographical location of Kolleru ................................................................. 15 Figure 4: The catchment of the Lake Kolleru .............................................................

al location of Kolleru ................................................................. 15 Figure 4: The catchment of the Lake Kolleru ............................................................. 17 Figure 5: The Upputeru debouching to the Bay of Bengal .......................................... 18 Figure 6: Diagrammatic representation of the Upputeru outlet ................................... 19 Figure 7: Mandals / Villages within Kolleru Lake ...................................................... 21 Figure 8: Canoe made by carving out the base portion of Palmyra trunk ................... 26 Figure 9. Major drains joining the Kolleru Lake ......................................................... 28 Figure 10: Drainage map of the Kolleru ...................................................................... 29 Figure 11: Fragments and pools are important for birds and other species ................. 31 Figure 12: Temperature profile of the area .................................................................. 33

: Fragments and pools are important for birds and other species ................. 31 Figure 12: Temperature profile of the area .................................................................. 33

iii Figure 13: Major bird congregations in Kolleru .......................................................... 35 Figure 14: Dead apple snails, becoming rare ............................................................... 36 Figure 15: Road network in and around Kolleru ......................................................... 41 Figure 16: A view of the public meeting ..................................................................... 44 Figure 17: Flood hazard around Kolleru ...................................................................... 53 Figure 18: Embankments are made around aqua farms ............................................... 58 Figure 19: The contours in Kolleru Lake ..................................................................... 59 Figure 20: Vegetation growth in the area .................................................................... 61 Figure 21: Bird abundance recorded in Kolleru .......................................................... 64 Figure 22: A mixed flock of birds in the lake Kolleru ................................................. 65 Figure 23: Pelicans / birds have returned ..................................................................... 67 Figure 24: Aquaculture before and after the operation ..............................................

ns / birds have returned ..................................................................... 67 Figure 24: Aquaculture before and after the operation .............................................. 103 Figure 25: Akiveedu Railway Station, indicating the altitude (3.26 m) .................... 128

APPENDICES Appendix 1: MoEF notification forming the committee ........................................... 161 Appendix 2: The schedule of the committee’s field visits ......................................... 163 Appendix 3: Bed and belt villages of the Kolleru Lake ............................................. 165 Appendix 4: Drains in West Godavari district ........................................................... 169 Appendix 5: Maximum discharge through Upputeru to the sea ............................... 172 Appendix 6: Birds recorded in the area ..................................................................... 172 Appendix 7: Fish and other taxa reported from Kolleru ............................................ 177 Appendix 8: Fish species depleted or disappeared from Kolleru .............................. 180 Appendix 9: Macrophytes reported from Kolleru ..................................................... 180 Appendix 10: Growth of aquaculture in Kolleru ....................................................... 182 Appendix 11: Notification on formation of the Sanctuary ........................................ 183 Appendix 12: Roads in the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary ............................................

Appendix 11: Notification on formation of the Sanctuary ........................................ 183 Appendix 12: Roads in the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary ............................................ 191 Appendix 13: Major industries releasing effluents to the Kolleru ............................. 193 Appendix 14: Map of Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary ................................................... 195 Appendix 15: Order to adhere to “Prohibitory order Book” ...................................... 196

ABBREVIATIONS +3 Contour = +3 feet above Mean Sea level Contour +5 Contour = +5 feet above Mean Sea level Contour ALP = Alternate Livelihood Program APPCB = Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board APSRAC = Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Applications Centre, Hyderabad) BOD = Biochemical Oxygen Demand CEC = Centrally Empowered Committee COD = Chemical Oxygen Demand CWH = Critical Wildlife Habitat CWRA = Central Wetland Regulatory Authority DO = Dissolved Oxygen DRDA = District Rural Development Agency EDC = Eco-Development committees FD = Forest Department GoAP = Government of Andhra Pradesh GoI = Government of India

iv KWS = Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary MoEF = Ministry of Environment & Forests, GoI NBWL = National Board of Wildlife PES = Payment for Ecological Services RF = Reserve Forests SACON = Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History, Coimbatore TDS = Total Dissolved Solids TMC = Thousand million cubic feet TSS = Total Suspended Solids WLPA = Wildlife Protection Act 1972 WLS = Wildlife Sanctuary

ithology and Natural History, Coimbatore TDS = Total Dissolved Solids TMC = Thousand million cubic feet TSS = Total Suspended Solids WLPA = Wildlife Protection Act 1972 WLS = Wildlife Sanctuary

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Kolleru, the largest fresh water lake in India, falls in the West Godavari and Krishna districts of the state of Andhra Pradesh. The catchment of the lake extends up to 6121 km2, of which 4763 km2 comprise of upland, and 1358 km2 deltaic. The high lands of the Eastern Ghats and northern plains in the Krishna basin and the southern plains of Godavari basin form its catchment. The lake is, in effect, two large conjoined elliptical sub basins, of which the larger one runs on its long axis from North to South. The two major islands in the lake, located at 1 to 2 m above Mean Sea Level (MSL), are Kolletikota and Gudivakalanka. The lake Kolleru debouches in to the Bay of Bengal through the meandering channel called Upputeru, which is about 65 km long. The channel is under strong tidal influence and turns brackish especially towards its downstream stretch.

In 1999, 308 km2 of the Lake falling below +5 feet above MSL contour line was declared as Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS). Even after the declaration, ecologically not-so-benign activities and encroachments continued unabated in the area. Regularizing the possession of land, aquaculture and related activities in the area became a matter of local public concern and political agenda.

s and encroachments continued unabated in the area. Regularizing the possession of land, aquaculture and related activities in the area became a matter of local public concern and political agenda. During the last state assembly election reduction of the sanctuary boundary to +3 feet from +5 feet contour and distributing the land thus released to public became a popular election promise. Consequently, on 4th September 2008, the Andhra Pradesh Legislature unanimously passed a resolution “to request the National Board of Wildlife, Govt of India and the ‘Central Empowered Committee’ to recommend for reducing the boundary of Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary from +5 feet contour to +3 feet contour to mitigate the problems of the farmers”.

Realizing the ecological, legal, socio-economic and livelihood related implications of the resolution, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Government of India (GoI) constituted this committee to look into the issue. The major terms of reference of the committee were as follows. Study the issue in greater detail both from the perspective of the protection of livelihood of the local fishers and farming community and the conservation and

of the committee were as follows. Study the issue in greater detail both from the perspective of the protection of livelihood of the local fishers and farming community and the conservation and

2 protection of the wetland of Kolleru and recommend to the government on the merits and demerits of the proposal of the Andhra Pradesh assembly for reduction of the Wildlife Sanctuary from the contour 5 to contour 3.
Tour extensively in the area and interact with the stakeholders including public representatives of the area and study the issue from a holistic view keeping the interest of both the local people and environment. Look into the matter of paying compensation to the private landowners who are losing their lands in the Wildlife Sanctuary. Get a quick scientific survey of the entire area done through satellite mapping to get an actual picture of the status of the lake and the alignment of the contour lines.

The committee started working on the above lines in June 2010. It realized the need for looking at the matter from a broader perspective taking into account the ecological services of the lake.

The committee started working on the above lines in June 2010. It realized the need for looking at the matter from a broader perspective taking into account the ecological services of the lake. In its first meeting at Hyderabad on 2nd June 2010 at Aranya Bhavan the committee decided to i) consolidate information available on Kolleru, ii) interact with the line departments of Andhra Pradesh such as forest, fisheries, revenue and irrigation departments, iii) examine relevant satellite images, contour maps and boundary maps from different agencies, iv) interact with other stakeholders; fishers, local residents, aquaculture groups, farmers, conservationists and peoples’ representatives, v) conduct mandal level meetings with the stake holders and undertake field visits, and vi) consolidate all the information and prepare the report for submission to the MoEF, GoI. Since a large quantum of data and related information is to be examined on Kolleru to develop a realistic perspective of the issues, the committee required more time than that was initially given by the MoEF.

The necessary data or information were collected from district administration, forest, revenue and fisheries departments, DRDA, APPCB as well as published and grey literature. Field visits were undertaken from 20 to 25 September 2010, in and around the lake Kolleru interacting with various field officials from government departments, the public and the leaders to understand their views and perceptions.

m 20 to 25 September 2010, in and around the lake Kolleru interacting with various field officials from government departments, the public and the leaders to understand their views and perceptions. Later the committee met a couple of times at SACON (Coimbatore) and APSRAC (Hyderabad), going through the drafts and finalized the report.

3 Kolleru lake system represents one of the largest and oldest natural lacustrine systems in the country. The lake receives water from several sources, of which the streams Budameru, Tammileru (East and West branches), Ramileru, Gunderu and Bulusuvagu are natural and foremost in terms of water input.

Like all wetlands, the lake lacks definite boundary and has an irregular shoreline. In fact, the lake’s boundary varies depending upon the seasonal inflows and outflows, as is the case of all inland wetlands. The Lake could extend to an area falling below +10 feet contour with a water-spread over 901 km2 during monsoon. It could recede down in summer to at +3 feet contours with water spread of about 135 km2 or lower at times.

The lake Kolleru and its surroundings have 148 rural settlements (50 in the lake-bed and 98 in the belt area). Primary occupation of people in the bed villages is fishing; agriculture being the second option. People in the belt villages have agriculture as primary occupation, followed by fishery related activities. Major crop raised here is rice, cultivated twice in a year. Kolleru also supports duckary, earlier an important means of livelihood for the locals.

cupation, followed by fishery related activities. Major crop raised here is rice, cultivated twice in a year. Kolleru also supports duckary, earlier an important means of livelihood for the locals. Capture fishery was also an important means of livelihood for large proportion of the people residing in the area. Fishery in the area, during the last couple of decades had shifted to a more capital intensive corporate venture.

The comparatively shallow Kolleru lake ecosystem offers excellent habitats for a variety of resident and migratory avian species. Several endangered or threatened species are also seen here. The Kolleru Lake is also an Important Bird Area. Avifauna of the area include a variety of waterfowl including ducks, teals, storks, egrets, herons, ibises, bitterns, cormorants, and a number of waders. More than 200 species of birds have been reported from the lake and its environs. Around 100 species of birds reported form the lake are migratory birds coming from different parts of Eurasia (Palaearctic region). These species depend largely on the wetland to meet their resource requirements.

Other fauna in and around the lake include various species of invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. About 63 species of fishes belonging to 29

their resource requirements.

Other fauna in and around the lake include various species of invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. About 63 species of fishes belonging to 29

4 families have been recorded from the lake. Of these, 44 are freshwater species. The natural species composition of fishes seems to have considerably changed for various reasons. Recently air breathing fish such as Anabas testudineus, Anabas oligolepis, Heteropneustes fossilis and Clarias batrachus are reported more frequently from the lake, perhaps for the low dissolved oxygen due to high organic pollution load in the water.

Besides offering critical habitats to several globally important faunal and floral groups, the lake offers many important ecological services some of which are discussed elsewhere in this report. Considering that the lake functions as a flood- moderating reservoir between the Krishna and Godavari deltas and that it supports several vulnerable species and a variety of resident and migratory birds, the Kolleru wetland was declared as a Wildlife Sanctuary, a RAMSAR site and also as an Important Bird Area (IBA). However, of late, indiscriminate exploitation of the Kolleru area has evidently resulted in depletion of many of the ecological goods and services conventionally derived from it leading to unwanted flooding and other negative consequences.

on of the Kolleru area has evidently resulted in depletion of many of the ecological goods and services conventionally derived from it leading to unwanted flooding and other negative consequences. Anthropogenic pressures such as cultivation in the lake bed, lavish use of fertilizers and pesticides, large-scale encroachment of lake bed for aqua farms, fishpond discharges, domestic wastes and sewage from three municipalities, and discharge of industrial effluents and agricultural run-off carrying inorganic nutrients have vitally affected and altered the ecological character of the wetland.

During the last couple of decades, the changing socio-economic and political milieu of the state in general and the region in particular brought enormous alteration to the lake area and consequent strains on this wetland ecosystem. Land use changes associated with aquaculture, industrial development, contemporary agriculture practices, and roads and bunds in the wetland area fragments the entire wetland and restrain its natural hydrologic regime and ecological cycles. Studies using remote sensing and GIS show striking increase in the land under aquaculture. The lucrative business of aquaculture made far reaching consequence on the habitual land use in the lake area. Encroachments in to the wildlife sanctuary and conversion of rice paddies to aquaculture farms has become commonplace in the wetland. Encroachments in

ce on the habitual land use in the lake area. Encroachments in to the wildlife sanctuary and conversion of rice paddies to aquaculture farms has become commonplace in the wetland. Encroachments in

5 Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary between 1999 and 2005 for aquaculture farms are also reported.

It was reported that increased aquaculture activity helped the proxy cultivators than the genuine owner farmers. However, there are no (documentary evidences) records to this effect as the lease agreements are mostly verbal understandings, without written agreements, made in the presence of village elders and at times in village temples before the deity.

Eutrophication and changes in flora and fauna has happened in Kolleru. Almost 60% decline of apple snail is reported, certain species of fish have either become rare or disappeared from the lake due to the inland aquaculture, and some of the birds have disappeared from the area. Submersion of paddy fields in the belt villages of Kolleru have become frequent and wider, and farmers in belt villages, beyond +5 contour levels, are being badly affected due to the submersion of crops because of the floods aggravated with the proliferation of fish tanks with high rise bunds below and above +5 contour by infringing on to the natural drainage regime.

As a result of judicial interventions, in 2006 “Operation Kolleru” was undertaken, to demolish illegal fish farms in the sanctuary area. Nevertheless, there are several reports that the fish tanks were formed afresh and are in operation.

n 2006 “Operation Kolleru” was undertaken, to demolish illegal fish farms in the sanctuary area. Nevertheless, there are several reports that the fish tanks were formed afresh and are in operation. Floods have continued for various reasons acting in concert. The “Operation Kolleru” an act undertaken upon judicial interventions, lasted 55 days, in three phases starting from 16 February 2006 and completing on 13 June 2006. As reported, 1776 large tanks were destroyed and 89.08 lakh cubic meters of earth forming the tank bunds were removed. The operation had notable socio-economic and ecological impacts.

Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary was declared vide GO Ms No 120 dated 4-10-1999, covering a part of the lake falling below +5 feet contour. However, appropriate compensation for loss of land was not made and Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R & R) issues were not satisfactorily addressed. Neither alternative sources of livelihood were developed nor was any socioeconomic development through community participation attempted. No attempt to disseminate correct message about the sanctuary and its socio-economic and environmental implications is known to have

economic development through community participation attempted. No attempt to disseminate correct message about the sanctuary and its socio-economic and environmental implications is known to have

6 been made. No attempt is also known to have been made to conduct a proper survey of the whole area focusing on its wetland / ecological characteristics, depth profile and re-confirmation of the so-called contours. Thirty-eight villages falling in five mandals were listed in the preliminary notification, but in all, 74 villages in 9 mandals were notified in the final notification. The reasons for these variations were left ambiguous and not justified in the final notification. Several issues related to the sanctuary notification remains to be addressed and settled.

The committee made extensive tour of the area and interacted with the stakeholders. The public meetings were very interactive; however, the committee while sitting through the whole proceedings developed a gut feeling that almost all of them appeared as stage managed by the leaders advocating a particular view point; reduce the boundary of the sanctuary. It was felt that alternative view points were censored and not allowed to be brought up to the committee.

During the public meetings and the journey through the villages 2269 representations were received. Overwhelming majority supported reduction of the area of the wildlife sanctuary, to bring down its boundary from +5 feet contour line to +3 feet contour line.

s 2269 representations were received. Overwhelming majority supported reduction of the area of the wildlife sanctuary, to bring down its boundary from +5 feet contour line to +3 feet contour line. The committee examined various arguments for and against reduction put forth before it. Some of the arguments essentially focused on the livelihood issues and economic development of the area, while some rare voices raised wider issues such as ecological services, habitats for a large number of endangered and threatened wild species, water storage, ground water recharge and so on. The representations largely points to the hype created for reducing the sanctuary area and to a large extent the lack of correct information reaching to the stakeholders.

Although human beings are highly dependent on ecosystem services, sufficient ecological understanding of the same is still wanting. In the case of Kolleru, information on these aspects is practically absent. As of now, the ecosystem services are generally taken for granted as free of cost and hence remain invisible to market forces. A change is urgently required in this outlook. A change is required to adequately value these veiled but vital services and to make provisions for payment for these ecological services (PES).

ces. A change is urgently required in this outlook. A change is required to adequately value these veiled but vital services and to make provisions for payment for these ecological services (PES).

7 Managing ecosystems addressing human needs involves several trade-offs that require detailed understanding of the biophysical magnitude of the changes in ecological services resulting from human actions and the impacts of these changes on human welfare. It is felt that before considering any further changes in the KWS or the Ramsar area, it is prudent to understand the characteristic ecological underpinnings of the area, and to integrate the knowledge in the socio-economic context to develop better policies and management strategies that will help balancing the aspirations of the local inhabitants and the larger conservation needs.

An ecosystem like Kolleru has to be considered as a natural, renewable resource generating infrastructural asset. It is wise to invest in preservation of this common wealth bestowed on us by nature. The nation and people from the mainstream has to support the locals for helping in maintaining the ecosystem with all its conservation and ecosystem values; payment for ecological services (PES). The local public needs to be rewarded or benefited from the conservation of local resources. The nation and the people from the mainstream should be made to pay for the invisible / intangible ecosystem services / benefits, essentially invisible to the market forces and this should accrue visibly to the benefit of the local inhabitants.

hould be made to pay for the invisible / intangible ecosystem services / benefits, essentially invisible to the market forces and this should accrue visibly to the benefit of the local inhabitants.

Looking at the issues confronting the KWS, the local inhabitants and the lake ecosystem we conclude that reduction of the wildlife sanctuary area would worsen the situation in Kolleru. In due course of time most of the lakebed is likely to be converted into fish tanks. Floods will remain incessant. The ecological setup of the area will degrade and wildlife will certainly suffer and many species will become locally extinct.

It is apparent that contours would have lost its expected sanctity because of anthropogenic interferences, excavations and siltation. The floods happening in the area are largely due to unscientific human interventions interfering with the hydrological regimes and flow pattern.

The boundary has to be fixed and standardized after scientific consideration of the ecological characteristics, and environmental flows to ensure the ecosystem sustainability of the area. Issues to be considered seriously while re-fixing the

after scientific consideration of the ecological characteristics, and environmental flows to ensure the ecosystem sustainability of the area. Issues to be considered seriously while re-fixing the

8 boundary are i) critical water level from hydrological point of view, ii) ecological requirement including habitat and breeding requirement for migratory and resident species both during monsoon and non monsoon seasons, iii) ensuring the minimum level of water required especially during the lean and winter months, iv) functioning of the water body as a flood barrier and v) traditional agricultural / fishery practices.

The area need to be mapped in full based on ecological and conservational aspects and the area that is relatively undisturbed and frequented by the birds need to be demarcated. That area will remain impermissible to all activities, called core area, and shall be declared as a “Critical Wildlife Habitat”. Till such a survey is conducted the area within +3 feet contour must be untouchable and inviolable. Beyond this area a stretch skirting this core area will be demarcated as buffer area or conservation area, where environmentally benign activities will be permitted and will be managed by a co-management group, as cited in the Wildlife Protection Act. Till the survey mentioned above is done, the area falling between +3 and +5 feet contour will be considered as buffer area, under the full control of the forest department. It may be noted that as per the Wetlands (Conservations and Management) Rules 2010 all Ramsar sites are fully protected.

considered as buffer area, under the full control of the forest department. It may be noted that as per the Wetlands (Conservations and Management) Rules 2010 all Ramsar sites are fully protected.

Execute appropriate R& R policy for all affected people within the contour +3 feet to +5 feet. People below 3 feet contour, holding zirayithi pattas, may be relocated paying appropriate compensation, as is legally mandatory, for the land holding coupled with a package for livelihood losses. The D-form patta holders also need to be offered a package for livelihood and involve them in the management of the lake to obviate the possible conflicts. Compensation may be considered as in certain precedent situations done by the Irrigation Department in Andhra Pradesh.

Under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, the state government can declare an area as Wildlife Sanctuary. However, upon issuing the final notification, all authority vests with the central government who has to seek approval of NBWL and its standing committee to make any changes in the notification. In the instant case where Supreme Court has already passed final orders, orders from the Supreme Court also have to be obtained. Hence the state governments should be careful, in future, to follow the provisions of the Act meticulously while declaring sanctuaries, especially those

the Supreme Court also have to be obtained. Hence the state governments should be careful, in future, to follow the provisions of the Act meticulously while declaring sanctuaries, especially those

9 clauses dealing with determining and settling the rights of people. If the genuine rights are denied, that nullifies the purpose of declaring an area as protected, because of several socio-economic, cultural, and legal complications and repercussions that would rise from antagonizing the local public who otherwise could have been patronized to be at least apathetic towards the protected area if not the custodians of its ecological resources and values. The conflicts in Kolleru has turned out to be this grave largely due to the failure on the part of the concerned authorities in addressing relevant socio-economic and legal issues arising from the declaration of the sanctuary in time.

Reduction of the present sanctuary area is not a viable solution for the socio- economic and ecological issues confronting the Lake Kolleru. A detailed survey of the lake Kolleru is to be conducted to delineate boundary based on ecological characteristics at the earliest. However, pending the detailed survey by a technically competent agency, no change in the status of the area under the KWS should be permitted, including operation of the fish farms within the existing boundary of the sanctuary.

The lake Kolleru serves several ecological services and that needs to be preserved for posterity. As noted above, it is a valuable infrastructure asset bestowed on us.

boundary of the sanctuary.

The lake Kolleru serves several ecological services and that needs to be preserved for posterity. As noted above, it is a valuable infrastructure asset bestowed on us. The state needs to take active measures to conserve the same; it is always wise to invest public money on conserving a public resource and in providing for appropriate means to ensure confidence of the public and their participation in the endeavor. Striking a balance between environmental concerns and livelihood issues is a challenge, which the managers and policy makers essentially are required to address.

1 PREFACE In 1999, part of the Lake Kolleru was declared as Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary (KWS). Even after the declaration, ecologically not-so-benign activities have continued in the area unabated. Spread of aquaculture farms and encroachments in the lake area has remained unrelenting. Regularizing the possession of land, aquaculture and related activities in the area becoming a matter of local public concern, during the last state assembly election campaign reduction of the sanctuary boundary to +3 feet above MSL contour level and allotting the released land to public turned up to be a popular election promise. The government which came to power, although of a different political alliance to that which brought up the subject as an election issue, declared the reduction of the contour line bordering the wildlife sanctuary and passed a unanimous resolution.

fferent political alliance to that which brought up the subject as an election issue, declared the reduction of the contour line bordering the wildlife sanctuary and passed a unanimous resolution. On 4th September 2008, the Andhra Pradesh legislature passed a resolution “to request the National Board of Wildlife, Govt of India and the ‘Central Empowered Committee’ to recommend for reducing the boundary of Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary from +5 feet contour to +3 feet contour to mitigate the problems of the farmers”.

Realizing the ecological, socio-economic, livelihood and legal implications of the resolution, the Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Government of India (GoI) constituted a committee to look into the issue (Appendix 1). The major terms of reference of the committee were as follows. Study the issue in greater detail both from the perspective of the protection of livelihood of the local Fishers and farming community and the conservation and protection of the wetland of Kolleru and recommend to the government on the merits and demerits of the proposal of the Andhra Pradesh assembly for reduction of the Wildlife Sanctuary from the contour 5 to contour 3.
Tour extensively in the area and interact with all the stakeholders including public representatives of the area and study the issue from a holistic view keeping the interest of both the local people and environment. Look into the matter of paying compensation to the private landowners who are losing their lands for the Wildlife Sanctuary.

view keeping the interest of both the local people and environment. Look into the matter of paying compensation to the private landowners who are losing their lands for the Wildlife Sanctuary.

11 Get a quick scientific survey of the entire area done through satellite mapping to get a realistic picture of the status of the lake and the alignment of the contour lines.
The committee started working on these lines in June 2010. However, upon deliberation the committee realized the need for looking at the matter from a broader perspective taking the ecological services from the Lake Kolleru.

2 OPERATIONAL STRATEGY OF THE COMMITTEE The committee first met at Hyderabad on 2nd June 2010 in the Aranya Bhavan, Hyderabad and deliberated upon the strategy to go ahead with the work. It was decided to i) consolidate information available on Kolleru, ii) interact with line departments of the Andhra Pradesh government such as forest, fisheries, revenue and irrigation departments, iii) examine relevant satellite images, contour maps and boundary maps from different agencies, iv) interact with other stakeholders; fishers, local residents, aquaculture groups, farmers, conservationists and peoples’ representatives, v) conduct mandal level meetings with the stake holders and undertake field visits, and vi) consolidate all information and prepare the report for submission to the MoEF, GoI.

A large quantum of data and related information is required on Kolleru to develop a realistic perspective of the issues.

all information and prepare the report for submission to the MoEF, GoI.

A large quantum of data and related information is required on Kolleru to develop a realistic perspective of the issues. Accordingly requests were made to the central and state governments for directions to the concerned government departments. Orders that came in due course from the union government as well as the state government could facilitate collection of relevant data from the concerned line departments. Secondary data / information were also gathered from various published and unpublished reports / articles in scientific journals and other sources. News items were also followed to appreciate general local situations and perceptions. Thus, data or reports were collected from district officials such as district administration, forest department, District Rural Development Agency (DRDA), Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) and Fisheries department.

The Andhra Pradesh State Remote Sensing Applications Centre (APSRAC, Hyderabad) kindly came forward to extend their expertise and was entrusted with the task of acquiring satellite imageries, digitizing concerned cadastral and revenue maps, analyzing them and preparing required output maps and to provide the required analysis results. The major primary information the committee obtained was from the APSRAC.

dastral and revenue maps, analyzing them and preparing required output maps and to provide the required analysis results. The major primary information the committee obtained was from the APSRAC.

13 In addition the committee undertook intensive field visits, during 20 to 25 September 2010, in and around the lake Kolleru and interacted with various field officials from government departments, the public and the leaders to understand their views and apprehensions. The field visits also helped the committee to have firsthand experience of the ground situation and to verify a range of multidimensional and multi-sectoral issues brought up from various corners during the visit. Incidentally, during this period the Kolleru was widely flooded, giving the committee a chance to take account of the flood miseries. The committee also collected written representations from various stakeholders, local public, civic and non-governmental organizations, community leaders and elected representatives of the area and conducted public hearings at pre-determined and widely publicized locations (Appendix 2, Figure 1) looking for diverse viewpoints. Figure 2: shows the route map of the field visits.

Figure 1: The locations (purple triangles) of the public meeting See Appendix 2 for details. Courtesy: APSRAC

The second meeting of the committee was held at SACON, Coimbatore, on 14 and 15 November 2010 to develop the framework of the report.

public meeting See Appendix 2 for details. Courtesy: APSRAC

The second meeting of the committee was held at SACON, Coimbatore, on 14 and 15 November 2010 to develop the framework of the report. It was decided that after making a tentative draft of the report, incorporating the respective contributions from the members, the committee could discuss the same at APSRAC, Hyderabad, on 14

14 and 15 January 2011. Same day, upon consolidating the available information and its scrutiny, SACON was entrusted to improve upon the write up and develop the draft report to be circulated among the members for further improvement. Incorporating the corrections and comments from individual members of the committee, and after further discussions amongst us the report was finalized. For the extensive work involved the committee required more time than that was initially given by the MoEF.

Figure 2: Route map of the field visits

3 THE KOLLERU LAKE SETTING The Kolleru Lake (N 16º 32’& 16º 51’; E 81º 05’ & 81º 20’) is the largest fresh water lake in India, situated in the alluvial plains formed between two major rivers, the Godavari and the Krishna, in Andhra Pradesh (Figure 3:). The lake is spread across mostly in West Godavari district and partly in Krishna district. The lake area is covered in the Survey of India (SoI) topo-sheets 65 H/1, 2,5,6,9 and 10 (Ramana Murty and Reddy 2010). The lake serves several functions which are discussed below. In recent years several changes have taken place in the basin.

a (SoI) topo-sheets 65 H/1, 2,5,6,9 and 10 (Ramana Murty and Reddy 2010). The lake serves several functions which are discussed below. In recent years several changes have taken place in the basin. Some of such important changes are discussed towards the later sections of this report.

Figure 3: Geographical location of Kolleru Source: Conservator of Forests, Eluru

16 3.1 Historical perspective The Kolleru area has a hoary past having figured prominently in the history of Andhra Desha. The area was ruled by Mauryas (around 300 BC), Satavahanas (200 BC to 200 AD), Ikshvakus and Salankayanas. The Kolanu durgam (Fort at Kolletikota) became famous during the rule of Chaluka Choda and Vikramadeva Choda. Rajendra Chola and later Kulothunga Chola II wielded power over the area (Bhavaraju Venkata Krishna Rao 1942). Two copper plates found in the lake Kolleru reveals that Pallavas ruled the lake area in 4th century followed by Chalukyas. The Western Chalukya king Pulikesin II marched on Vengipura, the capital of Vengidesa. According to Sir Walter Eliot, Kolleru lake area was called Kudrahara. Invasion of the Andhra country by Pulikesin II was checked by the vassals of Vishnukundin Empire. However Pulikesin’s army crossed the river Godavari and attacked Vishnukundin king Mahendravarman III. Failing to resist the invader in the open field, he took refuge in the fortress of Kolanupura in the lake Kolleru. Pulikesin II laid siege of the fort and Mahendravarman III was defeated and slain.

Failing to resist the invader in the open field, he took refuge in the fortress of Kolanupura in the lake Kolleru. Pulikesin II laid siege of the fort and Mahendravarman III was defeated and slain. Pulikesin II installed his brother Kubja Vishnuvardhana as the ruler with Vengi as the capital. Chalukyas were succeeded by Cholas with Tanjore as their capital. Later Velanadu cholas ruled the area. Hieun Tsang, the Chinese traveler who visited Andhra Desha during the rule of Jayasimha (633-56 A.D) has recorded the presence of several ships of Jayasimha anchored in the lake, Hindu temples and Buddha vihara in the area. 3.2 The catchment and geomorphology of the basin The catchment area of the lake extends up to 6121 km2, of which 4763 km2 comprise of upland, and 1358 km2 deltaic (Ashok Kumar 2007, Figure 4: ). The high lands of the Eastern Ghats situated 32 to 80 km away from the lake in the north and the flood- plains of Krishna and Godavari form its catchment. The upland area of the catchment falls in Khammam, West Godavari and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh.

rom the lake in the north and the flood- plains of Krishna and Godavari form its catchment. The upland area of the catchment falls in Khammam, West Godavari and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh.

17 Figure 4: The catchment of the Lake Kolleru

Geological formation of the area consists of alluvial deposition with Khondalite, the Gondwana and Deccan trap rocks on all sides. Topographically the Lake is located over a deep-seated tectonic depression, which is geo-physically known as Gudivada sub-basin between the Bapatla and Tanuku subsurface ridges or highs (Raju et al., 2003). The unique topography of the area is an important reason for the lake’s existence. The lake is believed to have been formed during the Holocene epoch (around 6000 years BP). The progradation of the coast line and evolution of the delta and transformation of the lake from an open marine bay to tidal lagoon delta and mangrove swamp to fresh water lake is discussed by several geologists (e.g., Babu, 1978; Mahendra Reddy and Shah, 1991; Biswas, 1993; Rao, 1998). Geologists consider the presence of a series of relict sandy beach-dune ridges right up to the southern margin of the lake near Kaikalur and Akiveedu towns as evidences for the narrowed shore line to the far inland during the geological past that eventually broadened up in the later years (Sadakata and Rao, 1997). The lake about 6000 BP

kiveedu towns as evidences for the narrowed shore line to the far inland during the geological past that eventually broadened up in the later years (Sadakata and Rao, 1997). The lake about 6000 BP

18 said to be a coastal lagoon as of now is more than 35 km inland from the current coast line. The only out let of the lake to Bay of Bengal, the Upputeru channel (Figure 5, Figure 6), an intricately meandering tidal channel playing crucial role in the maintenance of wetland’s hydrological regime, is also distinctive evidence of it as a one-time coastal lagoon. It is assumed that as the Krishna and Godavari deltas became wider, the lagoon receded and got restricted to inlands (Rao et al., 2004).

Figure 5: The Upputeru debouching to the Bay of Bengal

The lake essentially is two large conjoined elliptical sub basins of which the larger one runs on its long axis from North to South. The lake as a whole slopes gently towards South-East. At its maximum, the lake is 39 km long and 22 km broad. Its mean depth reportedly varies from 0.5 to 2.0 m, while the maximum depth is about 10 m. For most part of the year the water depth varies between 1 and 1.5 m. During flood season it reaches 3 to 4 meters. The water body is known to occur between the bathymetric ranges of 0.3 m below sea level to 3.2 m above the sea level (Nandakishwar Rao, 1988). The belt area is 2 to 3 m above the sea level while the islands in the lake are 1 to 2 m above the water level (Radhakrishna, 1989). The two major islands in the lake are Kolletikota and Gudivakalanka.

elt area is 2 to 3 m above the sea level while the islands in the lake are 1 to 2 m above the water level (Radhakrishna, 1989). The two major islands in the lake are Kolletikota and Gudivakalanka.

Figure 6: Diagrammatic representation of the Upputeru outlet

The landforms in the Kolleru basin are of different origin; fluvial, marine, fluvio- marine, and denudational (Ramana Murty and Reddy, 2010). Of the five strandlines seen in the Krishna-Godavari deltaic region, that indicates the five stages of deltaic growth (Biswas, 1993), the Kolleru lake lies in between Strandline 1 and 2 (Ramana Murty and Reddy, 2010). Major geomorphic features identified in the basin are palaeo-lagoons, palaeo-channels, beach ridges and swales, deltaic plains, and the palaeo-channels, a fluvial landform of significance, which are concentrated towards the east and south of the lake. Palaeo-channel (low) is within the frequently flooded region. Other landforms of fluvial origin seen in the basin include palaeo-channel bars, palaeo-islands, present-islands and swamps. Landforms of marine origin include the present extent of palaeo-lagoon, beach-ridge and swale. The fluvio-marine landforms include deltaic plains of three gradients; upper, middle and low. The upper limit of deltaic plain-upper closely follows a curvilinear path in the vicinity of Elluru

e. The fluvio-marine landforms include deltaic plains of three gradients; upper, middle and low. The upper limit of deltaic plain-upper closely follows a curvilinear path in the vicinity of Elluru

20 and Unguturu. The denudational landforms include pediplains of shallow, moderate and deep withering, pediment and residual hills. These landforms present in the north and the northwest of the Kolleru Lake, are of least significance (except deeply weathered pediplain) from the view of flooding. 3.3 Demography Currently, the lake and its surroundings are inhabited by large number of people belonging to several villages (Figure 7, Appendix 3). There are 148 rural settlements (50 in lake bed and 98 in the belt area, spreading over the West Godavari and Krishna Districts. The Kolleru wildlife sanctuary is spread over 7 mandals (a revenue and development unit in Andhra Pradesh) in the West Godavari district and 2 mandals in Krishna District. In total, stretching across both the districts there are 64 revenue villages that cover 74 settlements and 66875 households (Table 1).

the West Godavari district and 2 mandals in Krishna District. In total, stretching across both the districts there are 64 revenue villages that cover 74 settlements and 66875 households (Table 1).

Table 1: Mandal wise demographic details of Kolleru wild life sanctuary No Mandal Revenue villages Settlements Households Population West Godavari district 1 Unguturu 1 1 2367 9520 2 Bhimadole 5 6 8731 34117 3 Pedapadu 2 3 2303 8627 4 Elluru 11 11 7973 31149 5 Denduluru 3 3 5012 18883 6 Nidamarru 11 11 9305 36310 7 Akiveedu 10 10 14896 59460

Sub Total 45 45 50587 198066 Krishna district 8 Mandavalli 8 8 2559 10316 9 Kaikaluru 11 21 13729 55995

Sub Total 19 29 16288 66311 Total 64 74 66875 264377 Source: Wildlife Management Division, Eluru

21 Figure 7: Mandals / Villages within Kolleru Lake Source: Above - APSRAC; below - Conservator of Forest, Elluru

22 3.4 Socio-economic set-up and livelihood changes of the area Human settlement in and around the Kolleru lake is spread over the islands, bed area and the marginal (borderline) area of the lake. Of almost 3 lakh people residing in the bed villages, islands and borderline villages and settlements in Kolleru lake area only about 10% belong to the Scheduled Caste (SC) and 0.54% belongs to the Scheduled Tribes (ST, Table 2). The percentage of SC and ST population is relatively high in the shoreline area of the lake (Mittal, 1993). Most the population in the area belongs to Backward Classes; the Vaddi community.

ble 2). The percentage of SC and ST population is relatively high in the shoreline area of the lake (Mittal, 1993). Most the population in the area belongs to Backward Classes; the Vaddi community.

Table 2: SC/ST proportions in Kolleru habitations Habitations SC (%) ST (%) Bed villages 5.38 0.06 Belt villages 19.92 0.64 Total area 10.08 0.54 Source: Mittal 1993

Primary occupation of people largely belonging to scheduled castes and tribes, and backward classes living in the bed villages are fishing; agriculture being only the second priority. On the other hand, people living in the belt villages prefer agriculture as their primary occupation, fisheries being the second vocation. In addition to agriculture and aquaculture many of the villagers are rearing ducks (Kumar, 2010). Most of the bed villages lack private land for cultivation. In villages such as Prathikollalanka since there are no private lands, people have been cultivating in government owned bed lands in the lake (Mittal, 1993). The fisher folks belonging to backward community (BC) mostly use or have leased out their land for aquaculture whereas those from SC community prefer agriculture as their main occupation and source of income (Kumar, 2010).

Literacy rate among the villagers in and around the Kolleru is very poor (Table 3). Literacy as per 2001 population census for the whole district is much higher (Table 4). Studies have also reported high level of poverty in the rural households of Kolleru lake. Most of the wage laborers in the area are migrants from Orissa.

he whole district is much higher (Table 4). Studies have also reported high level of poverty in the rural households of Kolleru lake. Most of the wage laborers in the area are migrants from Orissa.

Table 3: Literacy in Kolleru region Habitations Male (%) Female (%) Total Bed villages 25.53 9.98 17.8

23 Belt villages 21.98 11.34 16.7 Source: Mittal 1993

Table 4: Literacy rates for the districts District Literacy rate Persons Males Females 1991 2001 1991 2001 1991 2001 West Godavari 53.38 73.95 55.75 78.43 43.3 69.45 Krishna 53.16 69.91 60.55 74.57 45.54 65.05 Source: Census of India 2001

3.4.1 Agriculture The major crop raised in the area is rice. Rice cultivation in the region dates back to ancient periods; presently about 32908 hectares of land in the lakebed is being used for traditional farming of the local variety of rice Yerra Var (Irrinki and Irrinki, 2007). Rice cultivation in the catchment is done twice in a year; first crop during July to September (summer crop; Kharif), and second crop from November to March (winter crop; Rabi). Average yield from rice cultivation in the area is 1750 kg/hectare (Irrinki and Irrinki, 2007). It is reported that only second crop is possible between +3 and +5 feet contour (Federation of Retired Irrigation Engineers 2010). Within +5 to +7 feet contours both crops are possible while the first crop is highly prone for seasonal flooding.

between +3 and +5 feet contour (Federation of Retired Irrigation Engineers 2010). Within +5 to +7 feet contours both crops are possible while the first crop is highly prone for seasonal flooding.

The rice paddies of the Kolleru also support Duckary, second important livelihood for the villagers from which an annual yield of 710 lakhs of duck eggs were estimated to be produced. Ancillary benefits from duckary include about 37000 tons of duck droppings per year that help enriching the lake water with nutrients of biological origin. It is also believed that ducks in the area acted as agents of biological control for vectors such as mosquito and thus check vector borne diseases like malaria and filariasis. During last couple of years duck rearing in the lake has drastically decreased, perhaps due to encroachment and large scale conversion of rice paddies to aquaculture farms.

The variety of aquatic plants in an around the lake provide very good grazing for cattle belonging to the local households. Aquatic plants believed to be nutritious than hay are widely used as livestock feed. Harvesting macrophytes and grasses is also a

de very good grazing for cattle belonging to the local households. Aquatic plants believed to be nutritious than hay are widely used as livestock feed. Harvesting macrophytes and grasses is also a

24 source of income for those living in the area. Phragmites karaka, Typha spp and Cyperus spp are extensively used by fisher folks for thatching roofs and making mats. They use Alternathera sessilis as leafy vegetable and rhizomes of Nymphaea sp as food supplement. Salvenia molesta is used as mulch in the gardens and compost made of water hyacinth is used in the coconut plantations. 3.4.2 Fishery and aquaculture Capture fishery historically was an important means of livelihood for large proportion of the people residing in the area. However, during the last couple of decades the fisheries in the area have evidently shifted to a more capital intensive corporate fish farming. Aquaculture in Kolleru was started extensively in the eighties which later spread to other areas in the Krishna-Godavari delta (Katiha et al., 2010). Being a lucrative business, it is estimated to generate annual income to the tune of Rs 1500 to 2000/- crores (The Hindu, 2006) and attracts large number of investors to the area. According to Ramakrishna (2007), carp culture offers livelihood to thousands of people and numerous associated industries in and around the lake.

and attracts large number of investors to the area. According to Ramakrishna (2007), carp culture offers livelihood to thousands of people and numerous associated industries in and around the lake. Fish and prawn from the area are being exported to several states in India, especially West Bengal and other north eastern states and other countries (Anonymous – Industrial Profile of West Godavari District, Rao et al., 2008). Apparently Kolleru has turned into the ‘fish bowl’ of India, and ‘Kolleru model’ carp cultivation has become widely known. From 1999 to 2001 the West Godavari district has shown 24% increase in inland fisheries production, while Krishna district showed an increase of 56%, making these districts among the top in the state of Andhra Pradesh (Rao et al., 2008), especially for fishery growth in Kolleru lake area. However, this high interest in this trade and investments, and the captivating returns had other implications on the local socio-economic and ecological setup, conservation and management of the protected area. In the 15th Meeting of the National Board of Wildlife held on 17th July 2009, the Chief Wildlife Warden of the state stated that ”Because of lucrative commercial fishery being operated in the area, it is very difficult to do anything in the matter”, while discussing the issue of reduction of the area under the wildlife sanctuary.

58 Fishermen Co-operative Societies, having about 5500 members, were operating in the lake area.

in the matter”, while discussing the issue of reduction of the area under the wildlife sanctuary.

58 Fishermen Co-operative Societies, having about 5500 members, were operating in the lake area. An average yield of 2500 to 3000 kg fish / hectare per season is reported from the area (Rao, 2005) and consequent high flow of money. Nevertheless, it seems

25 that there has been an unwelcome change in the socio-economic setup as the local residents have become more of daily wage laborers in fish farms, although legally owned by them and run by proxy in a corporate mode by outsiders, practically depriving them of their private holdings. Narender (1993) quotes Mr Anjaneyalu of Bhujapalapatnum “the land has shifted from small time fisher folk to big land lords”; in all likelihood without change in legal ownership. The corporate and intensive fish farms appear to have caused large-scale changes in the effective landholdings and land use in the area, with ecological, socio-economic, legal, administrative and political implications. 3.4.3 Lifestyle changes The communities living around traditionally used the lake for fishing. Folk memories of the villagers from nearby areas reveal that they were seasonally migrating for over a century, if not more, to the Kolleru lake bed every season after the water level lowers down and lands become fit for agriculture. They were cultivating a local variety of paddy called Yerra Vari (red variety of Paddy) after December every year.

ery season after the water level lowers down and lands become fit for agriculture. They were cultivating a local variety of paddy called Yerra Vari (red variety of Paddy) after December every year. Even though the agricultural practices adopted by them were not as sophisticated as of now, the yields were good thanks to the rich alluvial deposits brought in by the floods. Nevertheless, there was an element of uncertainty and risk in agriculture and fishing due to frequent floods and droughts.

In the course of history, during the colonial period, certain traditional fishers’ populations called Vaddi (reportedly migrated from Chilika area in Orissa state) and relatively underprivileged people from the neighborhoods of Kolleru belonging to various castes recognized by the Constitution of India as Scheduled Castes and by state government as Backward Classes, after independence settled down around the lake. During our village level public meetings, elders recalled that they survived during their younger days on roots (local name Urligadda) and tubers, lotus seeds (Allipakaya) and snails and by fishing using small nets, fishing rod or basket traps in the drains and small dugout canoe (locally known as ‘doni’ made by carving out the pith from the base portion of Palmyra trunk, Borassus flabellifer, Figure 8).

ets, fishing rod or basket traps in the drains and small dugout canoe (locally known as ‘doni’ made by carving out the pith from the base portion of Palmyra trunk, Borassus flabellifer, Figure 8).

26 Figure 8: Canoe made by carving out the base portion of Palmyra trunk

Over the years, the settlements developed into permanent villages with the successive governments extending all weather roads and infrastructure such as schools, housing, health institutions, electricity and piped water supply. It seems that with the advent of commercial aquaculture in the area, flow of money and rise in ancillary industries there have been considerable improvement in the life-quality of the people. However, disparities have prevailed, leading to notable grievances and demands.

During the last two decades, changes have come about in marketing, commercialization of agriculture and fisheries. At the same time, intensive agriculture under various programmes such as IADP (Intensive Agriculture Development Program) promoted by the government to augment productivity of the lands in the deltas of Godavari and Krishna rivers also had their impacts. People in the Kolleru Lake were also influenced by other developments. Sugar industries, Paper Mills etc., were also established in these districts. The small towns in the district have grown in to municipalities and municipal corporations over the years.

evelopments. Sugar industries, Paper Mills etc., were also established in these districts. The small towns in the district have grown in to municipalities and municipal corporations over the years.
3.5 Ecological set-up Being the largest fresh water body in the country, the Kolleru wetland and its associated environs possess several commendable ecological characteristics and offer several ecological goods and services to human kind, other living forms as well as environment.

27 3.5.1 Hydrology and water storage The lake receives water from several sources (Appendix 4, Figure 9, Figure 10). Of these, the streams Budameru, Tammileru (East and West branches), Ramileru, Gunderu and Bulusuvagu are natural and foremost in terms of water input. Minor streams, Jayanthi, Kattaleru, Ippalavagu, Telleru, Ballaleru and Nadimeru flowing through several mandals also join the lake Kolleru. The rest of inflow drains are largely manmade and contribute lesser inputs. The estimated total inflow via these sources is about 9.6 TMC (Thousand million cubic feet, Table 5) per annum. The Budameru flows through the taluks of Vijayawada, Gannavaram, Gudivada and Kaikaluru, while the rest of the streams flow through the West Godavari district. Tammileru originating from Bethupalli in Khammam district reaches Kolleru lake after passing through Nagireddygudem reservoir in Chintalapudi Mandal.

The lake Kolleru debouches into the Bay of Bengal, at Peranatalakanuma through the meandering channel called Upputeru which is about 65 km long (Figure 5).

udem reservoir in Chintalapudi Mandal.

The lake Kolleru debouches into the Bay of Bengal, at Peranatalakanuma through the meandering channel called Upputeru which is about 65 km long (Figure 5). The channel is under strong tidal influence and turns brackish especially towards the downstream stretch. The Lake Kolleru is largely a freshwater body, except towards its south eastern portion where the water may turn brackish particularly during summer months due to salt water ingression through Upputeru. Around 26% of the lake area in eastern zone gets affected by high tides, particularly in summer (Amaraneni et al., 2004). A drain Yenamaderu, which does not join the lake, joins Upputeru about 8 Km upstream of its confluence with the sea. However, Yenamaderu drain with a maximum flood discharge of 20000 cusecs could affect the water level in Kolleru via the Upputeru.

Figure 9. Major drains joining the Kolleru Lake

Table 5: Inflows into Kolleru Lake Channel Cusecs TMC West Godavari district 1 67 drains
52166 4.51 2 Tammileru 23235 2.01 Krishna District 3 Polraj major drain 2499 0.22 4 Chandraiah Major drain 3893 0.34 5 Bomicodu drain 476 0.04 6 Moturu Channel 1035 0.09 7 Budameru river
27687 2.39 Total 110991 9.59 Source: Executive Engineer, Drainage Division, Bhimavaram, TMC = Thousand million cubic feet

omicodu drain 476 0.04 6 Moturu Channel 1035 0.09 7 Budameru river
27687 2.39 Total 110991 9.59 Source: Executive Engineer, Drainage Division, Bhimavaram, TMC = Thousand million cubic feet

29 Figure 10: Drainage map of the Kolleru

The lake lacks definite boundary and has an irregular shoreline. In fact, the lake’s boundary depends upon the rains, and related seasonal inflows and outflows. Broadly, the Lake Kolleru could be extending up to an area falling below +10 feet contour line above the MSL. At +10 feet contour, the water level spreads over 901 km2. In summer it recedes down to +3 contour and 135 km2 in area (Table 6) or lower at times. Accordingly the water storage also will change (Table 7). In certain drought conditions the water spread goes as low as 10000 acres (~ 4000 ha), getting limited to scattered fragments and pools (Figure 11) towards the lower contours. In 1964, during the flood season water swelled up to +10.7 feet contour, covering 954 km2. At +7 feet contour, the lake extends over an area of 675 km2. The fluctuating water spread with seasonal inflows enhances the lake’s ecological significance as a wetland of vital importance. Moreover, it is the innate nature of a wetland to change its extent according to the hydrological regime.

Table 6: Water spread area of the lake Kolleru Contour (feet) Water spread (Km2) 10.7 954 10 901

s the innate nature of a wetland to change its extent according to the hydrological regime.

Table 6: Water spread area of the lake Kolleru Contour (feet) Water spread (Km2) 10.7 954 10 901

30 7 675 5 308 3 135 Courtesy: Ashok Kumar 2007

Table 7: Approximate water storage in the lake Kolleru Contour
Storage (Mm3) +3 feet 150 +5 feet 300 +7 feet 508 +9 feet 1222

The run-off of about 5" rainfall in 24 hours from the catchment brings in an inflow of about two lakh cusecs. As the discharge capacity of the outlet, the Upputeru is only about 11250 cusecs the high inflow result in rise of the water spread and ensuing flooding of the neighboring lands. The discharges in past was in the range of 3200 to 21300 cusecs (Appendix 5). The Government of India appointed AC Mitra Committee in 1966 which recommended a straight-cut to augment the outflow and to restrict the highest flood level to +7 feet contour. As a result of straight-cut of Upputeru, construction of a reservoir across Tammileru at Nagireddygudem in Chintalapudi Mandal, diversion of part of Budameru water to Krishna river, water spread in most of the seasons were expected to come down to +5feet contour. This would mean covering only 308 km2 out of the total 954 km2 and consequently reduced water holding / storage capacity of the lake.

However, a point to be noted is the low hydraulic gradient of the Upputeru.

covering only 308 km2 out of the total 954 km2 and consequently reduced water holding / storage capacity of the lake.

However, a point to be noted is the low hydraulic gradient of the Upputeru. Its hydraulic gradient is low at 1:25,000 (at +7 ft level) to 1:33,000 (at +5 ft level) compared to the smaller drains like Bondada drain which has a gradient of 1:18,000 at confluence with Upputeru. Hence, even after the suggested modification in Upputeru
it is not known whether the designed discharge of 20,000 cusecs (the earlier discharge was about 10000 cusecs) could be achieved because Upputeru bed being deepened below the sea level is unlikely to improve the outflow of lake water into the sea.

Figure 11: Fragments and pools are important for birds and other species

3.5.2 Water quality As stated earlier the Kolleru lake system is located amid the deltas of the rivers Godavari and Krishna and the lake is fed directly by several seasonal rivulets and is also linked to the Krishna and Godavari systems through several inflowing drains and irrigation channels. The lake is not directly connected with either Krishna or Godavari rivers. Nevertheless, the Kolleru wetland receives huge quantity of nutrient rich sediments from the flood plains of these rivers.

he lake is not directly connected with either Krishna or Godavari rivers. Nevertheless, the Kolleru wetland receives huge quantity of nutrient rich sediments from the flood plains of these rivers.

32 The data collected by Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) from twenty locations (8 located in the lake, eleven in inlet drains and one in the outlet) for the last eight years (2002-2009) shows a trend of decreasing pH levels of the lake water. The fall in pH level in most part of the lake happened just after the “Operation Kolleru” discussed elsewhere in this report. However, the pH again has started rising gradually. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) in the water shows a trend of gradual decline till 2006 and the “Operation Kolleru”. In 2006, after the demolition of fish tanks the TDS level decreased, followed by a gradual increase later. The DO levels in the lake were slightly lower than that at the sampling points at the inlets. COD and BOD levels of the lake water were also found slightly reduced after the Operation. Nutrient levels were high in the case of almost all the sample sites, especially Chandraiah drain, Polaraju drain, Pandikkodu drain, Bulusu drain, Chinna edalagadi site, Circar canal site, Gudivakalanka bridge site and Srungavarappadu drain sites. Similarly the total E. coli was found slightly high in almost all parts of the lake.

At various locations in the lake, the Upputeru and the Yenamaderu the water is contaminated with bio-degradable organic matters, nitrogenous fertilizers and sewage matters (Rao et al., 2006).

At various locations in the lake, the Upputeru and the Yenamaderu the water is contaminated with bio-degradable organic matters, nitrogenous fertilizers and sewage matters (Rao et al., 2006). High variation observed in total conductivity, and salinity in the water samples from Kolleru reveals salt water ingression during the dry months of the year. The samples collected from the Upputeru contain high CO2 which is due to the decomposing organic matter. Similarly the dissolved Oxygen (DO) was very low in water from Yenamaderu, due to contamination from sewage. The high amount of phosphate and chloride in the lake water also relate to the greater levels of human activity and eutrophication status in the lake. 3.5.3 Meteorology Meteorologically the Kolleru basin falls under semi-arid climate class, with three seasons, namely summer, monsoon and winter. The basin enjoys rainfall from both southwest as well as northeast monsoons. The rainfall was found to vary widely across the years (Table 8). The normal rainfall in the area is about 715 mm. Not much variation is seen in temperature across the seasons (Figure 12). Winter last for a period of three months (December – February) followed by summer, which lasts till June to mid July. Dry situation have been reported frequently in the uplands of the basin due to failure or delayed monsoon. Similarly flood due to depression (in the Bay

summer, which lasts till June to mid July. Dry situation have been reported frequently in the uplands of the basin due to failure or delayed monsoon. Similarly flood due to depression (in the Bay

33 of Bengal) induced rainfall / storms are frequent in the basin generally during August to November.

Figure 12: Temperature profile of the area Source: India Meteorology Department

Table 8: Rain fall in the area (millimeters) Year Actual Normal %Deviation 2006-7 621.7 715.3 -13.1 2007-8 2133.7 715.3 198 2008-9 1558.2 715.3 118 2009-10 842.8 715.3 17.8 2010-11 971.9 725 34.1 Source: Chief Planning Officer, West Godavari

3.5.4 Avifauna The comparatively shallow Kolleru lake ecosystem offers excellent habitats to plenty of resident and migratory avian species (Appendix 6). Birds in the area have been well documented by various authors (e.g. Neelakantan, 1949; Kannan and Manakkadan, 2005; Rao and Rao, 1987; Krishnan, 1981; Pattanaik et al., 2008). Several species seen here are also endangered or threatened. Kolleru is also listed as an Important Bird Area (IBA Site Code – IN-AP-04, Jhunjhunwala et al., 2001; Islam et al., 2004). According to the IBA document (Islam et al., 2004) the threats and conservation issues pertinent to the Kolleru IBA are i) expansion of agricultural activities, ii) pollution, iii) hunting, collection of birds’ eggs, iv) removal of aquatic vegetation and v) growth of commercial fisheries, and vi) drought.

u IBA are i) expansion of agricultural activities, ii) pollution, iii) hunting, collection of birds’ eggs, iv) removal of aquatic vegetation and v) growth of commercial fisheries, and vi) drought.

34 Table 9: Number of birds belonging to major families Family Years 1988 1989 1996 2004 2005 2007 Podicipedidae 20 22 48 20 40 230 Pelecanidae

1050 Phalacrocoracidae 15 60 55 250 70 830 Ardeidae 108 257 1117 1022 152 8329 Threskiornithidae 1000 15000 428 30 60 37060 Anatidae 15020 8361 23700

2704 Rallidae 302 188 160 20
616 Jacanidae 5 32 400 2
113 Haematopodidae

17 Charadriidae 2 9 20 80 2 29 Scolopacidae 315 237 25 12
2546 Recurvirostridae

48 84

1490 Laridae

Sternidae 25 54 25 400 120 8455 Source: Wetland International (2008)

Avifauna of the area include a variety of water fowls, ducks, teals, storks, egrets, herons, ibises, bitterns, cormorants, and a number of waders. More than 200 species of birds were recorded from in and around the lake (Appendix 6, Table 10). Nine locations of bird congregation have been reported from the lake area, which include Atapaka, Agadalalanka, Pedayedlagady, Kolletikota, Adavikolani, Chinnamillipadu, Sidhapuram, Jayapuram and Chinthakodu (Ashok Kumar - Personal Communication). Of these, 6 congregations lie below +3 feet contour. The headquarters of the revenue villages, where these congregations are seen are shown in the map (Figure 13).

Kumar - Personal Communication). Of these, 6 congregations lie below +3 feet contour. The headquarters of the revenue villages, where these congregations are seen are shown in the map (Figure 13). Although these bird congregations said to be at nine places does not imply that the birds use only those areas. They depend on a larger extend of the wetland for their various resource requirements.

Table 10: Some locations of bird congregation in Kolleru

Locations Co-ordinates 1 Lakshmipuram 16o44’15.1, 81o16’17.5 2 Korakollu 16o44’54.6, 81o16’56.5 3 Nagarjuna tanks 16o42’21.7, 81o20’26.9 4 Karrakodu 16o41’46.2, 81o17’21.0 5 Jayapuram 16o36’56.7, 81o06’26.6 6 Chintakodu 16o42’01.8, 81o15’06.3 Source: Gracious P, Assistant Conservator of Forests (Retd), Elluru

Around 100 species of birds reported form the lake are migratory coming from different parts of Eurasia. Grey pelican, greater flamingos and lesser flamingos are

35 striking migrant species that regularly visits the area. Great White Pelican are also reported from the area (Taher and Mani, 2008). It is reported that Prof Bharathalaxmi (Andhra University) and Sri Ch Balasubrahmanyam (Retired Forest Range Officer, Elluru) sighted the critically endangered, globally threatened Spoon-billed Sandpiper Eurynorhynchus pygmaeus in July 2008 and November 2009 in Gudivadalanka and Pathikolla Lanka in Kolleru lake. Birdwatchers Society of Andhra Pradesh team while visiting the lake in February 2009 has also recorded Spoon-billed Sandpiper and Water Cock Gallicrex cinerea at Atapaka.

lla Lanka in Kolleru lake. Birdwatchers Society of Andhra Pradesh team while visiting the lake in February 2009 has also recorded Spoon-billed Sandpiper and Water Cock Gallicrex cinerea at Atapaka.

Figure 13: Major bird congregations in Kolleru

3.5.5 Other faunal forms Other fauna including aquatic species reported from the lake range from various invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, to mammals (Appendix 7, Ashok Kumar, 2007; Gopalakrishnayya, 1999; Dutt and Murthy, 1971; Chacko et al., 1952; Murthy, 1977; Dutt and Murthy, 1976a&b; Dutt, 1983; Dutt and Reddy, 1979; Dutt and Sharma, 1979). Among the invertebrates, the major are Pila virens (Apple snail, Figure 14), Bellamya dissimilia, B. bengalensis, Indoplanorbis exustus, Melania

36 striatella, Thiara 1ineatus, T. scabra, Lymnaea luteola, L. acuminata, Cornicula atriatella, Lamellidens marginalis, and Parreysia corrugata (Rama Raju, 1990). These mollusks form the staple food for several wild species, especially Open billed stork and about 7.4 lakh ducks in the lake area. Several prawn species are also reported from the area. During July-October prawns such as Metapeneus monoceros, Macrobrachium malcomsonii, M. rosenbergi and M. rude are harvested, while the Tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon) is cultured in the lake (Seshagiri Rao, 1988).

Figure 14: Dead apple snails, becoming rare

About 63 species of fishes belonging to 29 families have been recorded from the lake (Appendix 7). Of these, 44 are freshwater species.

ao, 1988).

Figure 14: Dead apple snails, becoming rare

About 63 species of fishes belonging to 29 families have been recorded from the lake (Appendix 7). Of these, 44 are freshwater species. The natural species composition of fishes in the lake would have considerably changed for various reasons including the frequent release (The Hindu, 2007) of lakhs of commercial species. Japanese and Indian carps are cultured and species such as Tilapia mossambica is harvested mostly for preparing fish meal or also as a table fish (Seshagiri Rao, 1997). The major commercially important species are carps, catfishes, climbing perches and eels. Recently air-breathing fish such as Anabas testudineus, Anabas oligolepis, Heteropneustes fossilis and Clarias batrachus are also reported from the lake. It is

37 said that the fish yield has declined in the recent couple of years, supposedly due to large scale encroachment of lake bed and leasing of part of the lake for fish farms. According to Seshagiri Rao (1997) 15 species of fish have disappeared (Appendix 8) from the natural waters due to aqua farming and the lake waters is being dominated by air-breathing fishes, perhaps for the low dissolved oxygen in the water.

Among reptiles Chequered keelback, rat snake, wolf snakes, spectacled cobra and several species of lizards have been recorded. Similarly mammals such as Mongoose, Fishing cat, Smooth coated Otter, Palm civet have been recorded consistently in the lake vicinity. The bottlenose Dolphin has been seen occasionally reported at the mouth of Upputeru.

as Mongoose, Fishing cat, Smooth coated Otter, Palm civet have been recorded consistently in the lake vicinity. The bottlenose Dolphin has been seen occasionally reported at the mouth of Upputeru. However, reliable documentation on reptilian and mammalian diversity is lacking from the lake environs. 3.5.6 Flora 34 species of plants are reported from Kolleru that include submerged, free floating, rooted floating and emergent macrophyte species (Appendix 9). Some of the common species are Ottelia alismoides, Ipomea aquatica, Eichhornia crassipes and Typha sp. (Seshavataram and Murthy, 1982; Seshavataram et al., 1982). Phytoplankton community of the lake is dominated by green algae, diatoms, desmids, myxophyceae and chlorophyceae. A few number of Chlorophyceae are recorded in spite of high nutrient content in the lake waters and phyto-plankton is poor since macrophytes use much of the nutrients (Y. Radhakrishna, 1989).
3.5.7 Ecological services Besides offering critical habitats to several globally important faunal and floral groups, the Lake Kolleru offers many ecological services some of which are mentioned below; It offers water for irrigation; ensures soil moisture in its surroundings It helps in flood control, an ecological service that in recent years is getting hindered for various land use changes and interference with the natural hydrological regimes A primary source of drinking water to large segment of the populations
Recharge of ground water;

hindered for various land use changes and interference with the natural hydrological regimes A primary source of drinking water to large segment of the populations
Recharge of ground water; the great utilizable ground water resources in the district are due to recharge from this large water body

38 Prevention of salt water ingression as the high hydraulic gradient reduces inland movement of salt water Capture fisheries is a traditional vocation for a large segment of the population The large water body sets the environmental milieu suitable for large scale culture fisheries The lake is an important means for transport; movement of people and materials
Offers several aquatic food species, both of animal and plant nature It helps in regulating local climate Growing macrophytes also help in carbon sequestration The Lake offers immense recreational / aesthetic values

Considering that the lake also functions as a flood-moderating reservoir between the Krishna and Godavari deltas and that it supports several vulnerable species like grey pelican and many water fowl including a variety of resident and migratory birds, the state government of Andhra Pradesh declared the lake as Bird Sanctuary under India’s Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 during 1999 (Appendix 11) and later in 2002 as a RAMSAR site.

Water birds, grasses, weeds, phytoplankton, zooplanktons, fishes, prawns and mollusks play an important role in maintaining the ecological uniqueness of the lake that has evolved since time immemorial.

r birds, grasses, weeds, phytoplankton, zooplanktons, fishes, prawns and mollusks play an important role in maintaining the ecological uniqueness of the lake that has evolved since time immemorial. It has prevented loss of native species of fish, birds and aquatic micro fauna. For ages, it has been the traditional resource base for the economy of the local villagers especially the traditional fisher folks. In view of its importance as a wetland ecosystem and since it supports certain vulnerable species and more than 50000 waterfowl, Ramsar Convention has accorded it the status of Ramsar site (No.1209) in 2002 and as a wetland of international importance (Ashok Kumar, 2007). The convention offers a pragmatic model for the nation with the aid of international cooperation for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

However, the chronic and recent indiscriminate exploitation of the Kolleru area evidently have caused depletion of many ecological goods and services derived from

39 it, leading to unwanted flooding and other negative consequences. Anthropogenic pressure such as cultivation in the lake bed, unrestrained use of fertilizers and pesticides, large-scale encroachment of lake bed for aqua farms, fishpond discharges, domestic wastes and sewage from three municipalities / discharge of industrial effluents and agricultural run-off carrying inorganic nutrients have seriously affected and altered the ecological character of the wetland.

age from three municipalities / discharge of industrial effluents and agricultural run-off carrying inorganic nutrients have seriously affected and altered the ecological character of the wetland.

4 LAND USE CHANGES AND ASSOCIATED THREATS TO THE KOLLERU ECOSYSTEM In reality, the lake system has been subject to severe pressure in recent years from anthropogenic activities. It is stated that that if human induced degradation continues the lake will soon vanish (Jayanthi et al., 2006, Nageswara Rao et al., 2004). The changing socio-economic and political milieu of the state in general and the region in particular has brought enormous alteration to the lake area and consequent higher pressure on the ecosystem. Land use changes associated with the aquaculture boom during the last couple of decades, industrial development and contemporary chemical intensive agriculture practices in the wetland area are some of the troubles affecting the well being of the ecosystem and its functions. Infrastructure development in the form of roads and bunds (Appendix 12, Figure 15) fragments the entire wetland and restrain its natural hydrologic regime. Some of the major land use changes happening and their ecological implications on Kolleru are discussed below.
4.1 Land use changes at Kolleru on government initiative Several studies have been conducted by various authors to estimate the trend and extent of the land use land cover (LULC) changes in the Kolleru area for the last several years.

ernment initiative Several studies have been conducted by various authors to estimate the trend and extent of the land use land cover (LULC) changes in the Kolleru area for the last several years. Rao et al., (2000) analyzed the land use changes that happened in the lake during 1989-1999; Nageshwara Rao et al., (2004) analyzed land use pattern for the year 2001; Jayanthi et al., (2006) examined it for the 1967 to 2004 period; Nagabhatla et al., (2009) analyzed the LULC during the period 1977-2007; Nageshwara Rao et al., (2010) reported the land-use changes during 2004-2008 and Pattanaik et al., (2010) examined land- use changes for the period 1977-2000.

41 Figure 15: Road network in and around Kolleru The roads (National highway, State highway, and district and village roads) and settlements (red patches) are delineated based on the SOI toposheets and updated with high resolution satellite data. Source: APSRAC

As per the study by Nagabhatla et al., (2009) while the agriculture land has decreased drastically, the land under aquaculture increased (Table 11); while no land was under aquaculture in 1977 it reached 15854 hectare in 2000. The ‘Operation Kolleru’ that demolished aquaculture farms in encroached areas in 2005 is reflected in the drastic decline of area under aquaculture in 2007. During the same time the area under aquatic vegetation and open water showed an increase. Notable rise in land under residential / settlements was also noticed during the period.

uaculture in 2007. During the same time the area under aquatic vegetation and open water showed an increase. Notable rise in land under residential / settlements was also noticed during the period. This trend is explained as consequence of influx of rice farmers during the late 80s when the aquaculture started booming in the area and consequent shift in land use from rice culture to aquaculture. Similar observation of increase in the area under aqua farms has been reported by almost all who have examined the LULC in the area (Ramana Murty et al., 2010, Nageswara Rao et al., 2004). The lucrative business of aquaculture made far reaching consequences on the habitual land use in the lake area. Encroachment in the wild life sanctuary and conversion of rice paddies to aquaculture farms appears to be

42 a common story in the Kolleru region. Studies also report increase in encroachment in Kolleru wild life sanctuary between 1999 and 2005 for aquaculture farms (Appendix 10). An examination of the different types of areas under different contours (Table 12) also shows more or less a parallel trend.

ife sanctuary between 1999 and 2005 for aquaculture farms (Appendix 10). An examination of the different types of areas under different contours (Table 12) also shows more or less a parallel trend.

Table 11: Land use land cover changes in Kolleru lake area (in hectares) Land cover/ use units 1977 1990 2000 2007 %Change* Aquatic vegetation 7245 3358 6530 10685 47 Marshy land 11455 17761 5610 6432 -44 Open land 1509 2978 3196 4655 208 Agriculture 12798 4787 4656 4413 -66 Open lake with floating vegetation 3099 2578 1359 6673 115 Aquaculture 0 5699 15854 1496 ** Settlements 1241 533 531 2623 111 Cloud cover 345 0 0 694 101 Total area 37699 *Change from 1977 to 2007, ** all new, based on Nagabhatla et al., 2009

Table 12: Area under aquaculture within different contours Contours* Total area Area under aquaculture (Km2) 1995 1997 1999 Below 3feet
341.00 28.00 70.36 104.36 Between 3 to 5 feet
144.00 26.90 32.20 42.81 Total below 5 feet
485.00 54.90 102.56 147.17 *Contours based on the map by the Public Works Department, AP Government, Courtesy – APSRAC

4.1.1 Privately owned lands During several interactive public meetings (Figure 16) it was claimed by many that in 1940s the British government had granted pattas (titles given by government for land ownership) to them charging market value. But, on further enquiries with the revenue officials it was reported that they have not come across any such pattas granted during the British period.

and ownership) to them charging market value. But, on further enquiries with the revenue officials it was reported that they have not come across any such pattas granted during the British period. The people and their community leaders who talked about the matter in the public meetings, held during 20-25 September 2010, were requested to furnish at least a copy of one such registered document. However, they could not produce a copy during the one week stay of the committee in the area. Nevertheless, the specific year from which they held the titles is not really important as they are in possession of those lands before the date on which the notification under Sec 18 of

43 Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 was issued by the government vide GO Ms No 76 Environment, Forest, Science and Technology (For III) Department, dated 26-9-1995. This was confirmed from the notes submitted by the District Collector and Conservator of Forests to the Committee. The details of land ownership in the sanctuary area are given in the Table 13 and Table 14.

Meeting with the district officials

pattern, of which more than 35 km are incorrectly aligned. Roads have been also laid leading to the fish tanks which were operating and still reportedly thriving in Bhimadole and Nidamarru mandals. The culverts along the roads are grossly inadequate for free flow of flood water, which would invariably result in longer withholding of flood waters, increasing inundations and disparities in the water level as hydraulic contact was lost among the artificially fragmented zones. The Wetland International (2008) has found the need to erect 339 vents to facilitate water flow.

As noted earlier, the lake covers about 901 km2 within +10 feet contour, 673 km2 within +7 feet contour, and 135 km2 within +3 feet contour. In monsoon the lake spreads generally over +5 feet contour with a water holding of 300 Mm3. Every alternate year, the lake spreads over +7 feet contour and the storage of water at this level would be 508.4 Mm3. On an average once in eight years the lake fills to above +9 feet contour, holding up to 1222 Mm3 water in contrast to the storage of about 150 Mm3 at near about +3 feet contour.

If the lake is resized by reducing its effective functional area, inflow during rains would spread far wider and away into upstream areas submerging bed and belt villages (Table 16), and at times the towns of Eluru, Gudiwada and Vijayawada. The

functional area, inflow during rains would spread far wider and away into upstream areas submerging bed and belt villages (Table 16), and at times the towns of Eluru, Gudiwada and Vijayawada. The

52 elevated water level will remain for a longer period as it is to be drained only by one outlet, the Upputeru that as of now is ill equipped to convey all the waters. On the other hand Upputeru water may backflow entering Kolleru Lake (Venkata Rao and Malleswara Rao, 2009) and drains joining it because of the low effective hydraulic heads. The loss of gradient in Upputeru and minor drains is evident from reducing velocities of their flows resulting in longer periods for recession of floods.

Areas aside the course of Upputeru also would be inundated with flood waters for longer duration damaging kharif crop there. Rabi is now permitted in parts of the delta only in alternate years due to inadequate water in the rivers. Thus, lakhs of people living in the regular ayacut in the two deltas and in the belt villages will face severe difficulties and pressure on their livelihood.

As the Upputeru drain is subject to tidal activity, and since its hydraulic gradient is relatively low the time taken for discharge of water per day is subject to tidal dynamics with back and forth movement of water switching direction every 6 hours. There will be more than two pulses of the flow front moving in the same direction at any day. At a hydraulic head of +7 feet with an approximate velocity of 0.5 m/sec, it takes 28 hours for the lake water to reach the Bay of Bengal.

of the flow front moving in the same direction at any day. At a hydraulic head of +7 feet with an approximate velocity of 0.5 m/sec, it takes 28 hours for the lake water to reach the Bay of Bengal.

There are reports of several deltas world over, including Krishna-Godavari delta, sinking for various reasons of sediment compaction (Syvitski et al., 2009). Some records show that West Godavari delta has already dipped by 0.5 feet to 1.5 feet. Universally, natural gas exploitation in delta regions is inferred by Syvitski et al., (2009) as one of the few reasons. Associated with other local causes, the ground water in the wells has turned saline and high tide sea water spreading longer distances have turned agricultural fields saline. The reported sinking of the delta would exacerbate the flood situation in the lake and requires further scientific investigations.

It is apparent that the lake is unable to accommodate the inflows due to encroachments and perhaps also because of rising lake bed due to increasing siltation. The high flood line (Figure 17) has been progressively increasing causing major floods. Water stagnating in the fields for several days even after demolition of fish tanks in some areas of the lake bed testifies for the alarming situation arising

vely increasing causing major floods. Water stagnating in the fields for several days even after demolition of fish tanks in some areas of the lake bed testifies for the alarming situation arising

53 from the incomplete removal of obstructions to the water flow and from decreasing gradient of the delta lands, and its effect on the flood recession.

Owing to the insufficient outflow of waters from the drains and flood, and perhaps for the decreasing water holding capacity of the lake due to accumulation of high silt load, water stagnate for longer duration and wider spread. Taking advantage of the situation, the plea that traditional farming is not possible is advanced to justify aqua farming.

Figure 17: Flood hazard around Kolleru

4.3.2 Pollution Decades ago the lake largely was a clean and safe fresh water body. Sri Anjaneyalu of Bhujabalapatnum, a Fisher said “As a child, I have seen that place full of freshwater. The water would be crystal clear and we would swim, bathe and catch fishes. But today, you don't see water at all. The lake bed has shrunk because of the vagaries of nature and as humans saw this place as a resourceful one, they flocked to it like sardines” (Narender, 1993). In due course of time activities such as agriculture and

nk because of the vagaries of nature and as humans saw this place as a resourceful one, they flocked to it like sardines” (Narender, 1993). In due course of time activities such as agriculture and

54 industries came along in ever-growing intensity in the catchment of the lake. Consequently, the drains and rivulets carry in to the lake substantial quantity of various types of pollutants forcing the lake to be a sink for the pollutants. The major sources of pollution are agricultural run-off containing residues of several agrochemicals, fertilizers, fish tank discharges containing antibiotics, pro-biotics, food wastes and others, industrial effluents containing chemical residues and organics of different types and municipal and domestic sewage. As a result, the water of the lake turned more alkaline in nature, turbid, nutrient rich, low in dissolved oxygen (DO) and high in biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Changes in total dissolved solids (TDS) and salinity imbalance in the lake has been reported (Rao et al., 2006). Water borne diseases like diarrhea, typhoid, amoebiasis and others are said to be common among the local inhabitants who are unaware of the state of pollution in the lake water. Vector borne diseases also would have come up in higher frequency. During the last two years the prawn and fish have been found to be affected by diseases leading to some farms being abandoned. The lands thus abandoned are useless for agriculture as well, since the soil and water have been contaminated and changed from their original characteristics.

leading to some farms being abandoned. The lands thus abandoned are useless for agriculture as well, since the soil and water have been contaminated and changed from their original characteristics.
4.3.2.1 Agricultural run-off As noted above, the lake has a catchment of upland and deltaic region known for intensive agriculture. Annually around 116800 tons of inorganic fertilizers are used there, of which about one fourth ends up in the lake via run-off and leaching (Gopalakrishnayya, 1999). Besides, natural nutrients from the vast catchment, from the natural levees of Godavari and Krishna rivers, drift down to the lake taking along 68,000 tons of cattle manures as deltaic area is dense with cattle population. The vegetation along the river banks also contributes substantially to the nutrient load, while their litters decay. In addition, about 7.4 lakh ducks (Gopalakrishnayya, 1999) also was known to enter the lake adding on their excrements. High levels of organic pollutants are also reported from the Kolleru Lake (Rao and Pillala, 2001)

The total organochlorine pesticides used in and around the lake area is estimated to be about 1600 tons / year. Residues of methyl parathion used in the first cropping season find its way into the lake, and is another major source of pollution threatening the biota with residual effects. The study conducted by the School of Chemistry, Andhra

n the first cropping season find its way into the lake, and is another major source of pollution threatening the biota with residual effects. The study conducted by the School of Chemistry, Andhra

55 University concluded that the contamination of pesticide in the ambient air of the lake may be due to uncontrolled use of pesticides in agriculture and aquaculture (Sreenivasa Rao and Rama Rao, 2000). Poly cyclic hydrocarbons are also reported from sediments of Kolleru Wetland (Amaraneni, 2004). High levels of organochlorine (OC) pesticide residues in water samples collected about 50 km upstream of the opening of the Tammileru River into the Kolleru Lake were also reported (Murty and Veeraiah 1990 cited by Wetland International 2008). Even in the waters at Sriparru village where the river enters the lake, they have recorded high levels of isomers of HCH, endosulfan, p-p-DDT and p-p- DDE in the tissues of some common fishes like Labeo rohita, Catla catla and Mystus sp., of the Kolleru Lake. Rao and Rao (2000) and Toxic link (2006) have reported detectable levels dieldrin from the Kolleru Lake. The prawn cultivated in the area had high concentration of pesticides, PAH and heavy metals above the permissible levels stipulated by the WHO (Wetland International, 2008). The large scale commercial exploitation of Apple snail (Pila virens) resulted in reduction of calcium content in the bed sediments, besides siltation, triggering chain reaction leading to pollution (Seshagiri Rao and Varahala Raju, 1996).

Apple snail (Pila virens) resulted in reduction of calcium content in the bed sediments, besides siltation, triggering chain reaction leading to pollution (Seshagiri Rao and Varahala Raju, 1996). 4.3.2.1.1 Fish tank discharges Fish tank discharges contain high organic load, chemical fertilizers and pesticides, feed wastes, antibiotics and pro-biotics. Super phosphate and nitrates, and tons farm yard manure are applied to treat the tanks for enhancing plankton production in fish farms. Application of about 1200 metric tons of fertilizers in one year leads to accumulation of phosphates which have high affinity to bind with soil leading to algal and ultimately cultural eutrophication. An analysis conducted by Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board (APPCB) shows high phosphate levels in lake waters.

Pesticides such as malathion, methyl parathion, which are notified by WHO as extremely hazardous, and endosulfan are indiscriminately used to kill fish parasites such as Argulus, Dactylogyrus etc. Furthermore, fish feed such as De-Oiled Bran (DOB), groundnut cake, farmyard manure and poultry manure are used to augment plankton production. It is stated that each hectare of a fish pond exchanges at least 15900 cubic meters of effluents every month and the actual pollution load from the fish ponds seems to, if not higher, high as that from industries and local

tare of a fish pond exchanges at least 15900 cubic meters of effluents every month and the actual pollution load from the fish ponds seems to, if not higher, high as that from industries and local

56 bodies. These higher concentrations of nutrients and organics from the discharges cause bacteria (which play a crucial role in decomposing organic matter) to proliferate and consume oxygen at a faster rate thus depleting the DO vital for aquatic life.
4.3.2.1.2 Industrial effluents According to Narender (1993) about 7.2 million liters of industrial effluents from eight industries including paper and pulp, sugar, distillery, milk and chemical industries containing suspended solids, colloids, foam, organic acids, lignin and resin acids are let into the lake. It is observed that most of the industries discharge effluents to the lake. Along the course of Budameru alone there are five industries. These effluents impart dark color to water and interfere with natural aquatic photosynthesis. High organic load induces a decrease in pH leading to high oxygen demand by bacteria which lowers the dissolved oxygen.
4.3.2.1.3 Municipal and domestic sewage Untreated municipal sewage from Vijayawada, Gudiwada and Eluru and domestic sewage from other human habitations on the sides of the inlets, flows into the lake. It is reported that the Eluru Municipal Corporation alone discharges around 24 MLD untreated sewage to the lake. Organic rich wastes cause various changes in water quality including depletion of oxygen levels leading to fish kills and bacterial contamination.

arges around 24 MLD untreated sewage to the lake. Organic rich wastes cause various changes in water quality including depletion of oxygen levels leading to fish kills and bacterial contamination. Fecal waste in water leads to the proliferation of pathogens such as Salmonella, Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae. High phosphate input from the wastes leads to eutrophication.

Fish which are exposed to the effluents coming from various sources experience hypoxic stress and oxygen deficiency. Depletion of DO deprives aquatic species of vital oxygen resulting in their death, perhaps one of the reasons for increasing number of air breathing fishes. It was reported that Effluent Treatment Plants (ETP) are functioning and, even so, it is doubtful whether the effluents at the final outlet of ETPs meet the statutory standards. Exposure to organics such as antibiotics and pro- biotics frequently used in fish farms makes the natural fish highly prone to infections, diseases and morbidity, not to speak of their ill effects on the species higher in the food chain.

and pro- biotics frequently used in fish farms makes the natural fish highly prone to infections, diseases and morbidity, not to speak of their ill effects on the species higher in the food chain.

57 4.4 Other threats The lake ecosystem confronts several other threats of which siltation, excavations, clogging of drains and eutrophication are very significant, compelling and apparent.
4.4.1 Siltation Rivers and drains flowing down from the catchment of the lake, agricultural run-off, laying and repair of roads in the upland areas carry large amounts of silt and top soil every year during the monsoon season. Roads, totaling about 180 km long, have been laid within the lake. Coupled with this, periodic repairs to these roads which often get damaged during the monsoon also add to the silt load reaching the lake. The paddy cultivation in the lake bed in summer also contributes silt.

Intensive use of inorganic fertilizers and other activities in the catchment and in pisciculture farms would also add to the increased nutrient and silt load, and consequent reduction in storage capacity of the lake. The reduction from 1900 to 1976, is reported (Conservator of Forests, Eluru), to be almost 31% due to combined effect of erosion and development activities. It is also reported that the lakebed has risen from -3 feet (-0.91 m) in 1900 to +1 - 2 feet (0.3 - 0.6m) in 1972-73. The lake bed also gets exposed at several places, more than what has been happening earlier, perhaps for excavations somewhere and deposition of silt elsewhere.

+1 - 2 feet (0.3 - 0.6m) in 1972-73. The lake bed also gets exposed at several places, more than what has been happening earlier, perhaps for excavations somewhere and deposition of silt elsewhere. The lake substratum seemingly has undergone considerable changes. Some estimates shows the lake bed as raising at the rate of 0.025m / annum which works to about 8.6 million cubic meters of silt calculated at the +0.91 meter contour level (Gopalakrishnayya, 1999 and Y. Anjaneyulu, undated). Accumulating organic matter such as decomposing macrophytes and agricultural waste are another contributory factor for raising lake bed in certain areas coupled with poor flushing action. Decaying organic matter is also an important contributor to the nutrient levels in water (Kulshreshtha and Gopal, 1982a & b; Azeez et al., 2007; Azeez and Prusty, 2008; Prusty et al., 2009).

Overall, presently the lake seems to be under serious threat of excessive loading of silt and nutrients, uncontrolled use of fertilizers and pesticides, fish pond discharges, domestic wastes and sewage from human settlements and municipalities and low flush-out process. These accelerated inputs have speeded up

ed use of fertilizers and pesticides, fish pond discharges, domestic wastes and sewage from human settlements and municipalities and low flush-out process. These accelerated inputs have speeded up

58 the ageing of the lake and in turn succession from wetland to waterlogged or later relatively more exposed area and later dry lands. 4.4.2 Excavations Another important issue that the lake has experienced is random excavation for making 3 to 4 meter high bunds and embankments, roads and aquaculture ponds. The bed of the lake is excavated at numerous places to build embankments (Figure 18) for fish farms, and to form pathways and then roads. These excavations necessarily would have changed the bathymetric profile of the whole system and consequently the water flow pattern. The contour lines (Figure 19), upon which the entire issue of boundaries in Kolleru depends upon, become practically unjustifiable in view of all these changes. The excavations would have also caused sediment layers getting mixed up; bottom layers brought up and upper layers brought down. Excavated bottom layer piled as embankments, exposed to atmospheric elements would hasten oxidation of organics and release of nutrients that were to an extent immobilized in the bed sediments.

Figure 18: Embankments are made around aqua farms

to atmospheric elements would hasten oxidation of organics and release of nutrients that were to an extent immobilized in the bed sediments.

Figure 18: Embankments are made around aqua farms

59 Figure 19: The contours in Kolleru Lake

4.4.3 Clogging Excessive nutrient addition, especially from anthropogenic sources, lead to explosive weed growth. The explosion of the aquatic floating weeds especially Eichhorrnia crassipes (water hyacinth, a widespread and aggressive exotic weed originally from South America) affects fish and other aquatic life (Malik, 2006), impede drains, shuts out sun-light to phytoplankton and submerged hydrophytes, and offers breeding ground for certain vector insects. The floating weeds are also known to increase evaporation and evaporation from water hyacinth is estimated to be ~3.7 times higher than evaporation from free water surface (Venkateswarulu, undated). Such weeds are also known to cause depletion of dissolved oxygen by way of their decay and aid siltation by trapping suspended solids and dust. Manually removing this weed, as has been tried in many other large wetlands such as Keoladeo National Park at Bharatpur (Rajasthan), has not been found successful. According to the Collector, West Godavari even when employment was offered under National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), villagers are not forthcoming to take up manual de- weeding. Bio-control has been tried in some water bodies such as Loktak Lake,

s offered under National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS), villagers are not forthcoming to take up manual de- weeding. Bio-control has been tried in some water bodies such as Loktak Lake,

60 weevil species such as Neochetina eichhorniae and N bruchi introduced in two phases have almost controlled the weed perhaps an exercise that could be explored for a tryout in Kolleru. Another insect found effective on water hyacinth is flee-beetle (Agasiches hydrophille). Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta are other exotic, one originally from Africa and the other from South America, free floating and fast growing weeds that are likely to spread far and wide in the Kolleru water body enriched with free nutrients.

Extensive growth of floating, rooted and submerged macrophyte species such as Phragmites karka, Ipomea aquatica and Nymphaea interfere with navigation (Figure 20), although they offer important habitats for a large number of birds such as Jacanas. The IBA document brought out by the BNHS (Islam et al., 2004) cites removal of aquatic plants as a possible conservation threat. However, their controlled removal needs to be considered. Nevertheless, prior to their removal appropriate assessment has to be done and areas have to be identified with respect to its impacts on birds using these plant patches. It is also pertinent to note that large scale de- weeding may result in loosening of sediment and stabilized mud banks, and in turn increase in macronutrients levels.

irds using these plant patches. It is also pertinent to note that large scale de- weeding may result in loosening of sediment and stabilized mud banks, and in turn increase in macronutrients levels.
4.5 Recap of major drivers for the land use changes The lake Kolleru and its basins have been experiencing considerable changes relating to social, economic, political and ecological aspects of the area. While deliberating upon the history of the area the changes that have happened during the earlier period up to 6th century AD has been hinted. Since millennia there have been influxes of people to the area, especially from Orissa. Later on many of the people permanently settled here of which the most notable was of those from Orissa called Vaddis, who were originally into capture fishing. The subsequent actions and changes in brief are given below as a recap. Since 1940, whilst the British government granted pattas (title deeds) on payment of market value for the lands, cultivation within the lake area increased.

n brief are given below as a recap. Since 1940, whilst the British government granted pattas (title deeds) on payment of market value for the lands, cultivation within the lake area increased.

Figure 20: Vegetation growth in the area

In 1954, the government accelerated the rice cultivation and initiated cooperative farming in the region by introducing 93 farming societies on 850 km2 of the lake bed. Subsequently native paddy varieties were gradually replaced with shorter, high-yielding varieties that required high dosages of chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
In 1969, almost entire lake was brought under cultivation and bunds constructed to keep water out to protect the crops. During this period several measures were also initiated to protect the rice cultivation from the annual flood. However, the cyclone in 1969 devastated the agriculture. By the time flood control measures were completed, most of the people had become skeptical to agriculture and abandoned it.
At this point, the better-off sections of community entered the scene and took the land / water area on lease from the society members for periods ranging up to five years. Till 1990, these influential classes, also comprising of those who have successfully done with the original beneficiaries, were only involved in fishery, an activity that requires fresh water. The infrastructure development coupled with increasing demand for fish created a new avenue for the villagers by late 1970s.

were only involved in fishery, an activity that requires fresh water. The infrastructure development coupled with increasing demand for fish created a new avenue for the villagers by late 1970s. Then chief minister Mr J Vengal Rao, encouraged Fishers to form registered cooperative societies and loans were

62 provided to members for seasonal cultivation of one hectare dry land per family. In due course, the principal land use became pisciculture which swiftly became profitable. By 1984, 5,000 acres of government land within the lake bed was converted to fish tanks under the management of cooperative societies. Diverting the wetland widely and arbitrarily for aquaculture regardless of the natural hydrologic regimes, and introduction of contractors and private entrepreneurs into the lake area were the events that happened during the time, which brought devastating effect on the natural flow system. The trend still continues.
The private entrepreneurs including well-off section of the local society were actually harvesting the land under the name of unprivileged local “beneficiaries” who legally own the land. In return, members from the local community work for a wage of about Rs 20/- a day for women and Rs 40/- for men. As Narender (1993) quotes Anjaneyulu "The land has shifted from small time fisher folk to big landlords”. In 1982, the Andhra Pradesh government set up the Kolleru Lake development committee (KLDC) and earmarked Rs 300/- crores for a master plan for Kolleru development.

sher folk to big landlords”. In 1982, the Andhra Pradesh government set up the Kolleru Lake development committee (KLDC) and earmarked Rs 300/- crores for a master plan for Kolleru development. The plan suggests that the lake level be maintained at +5 feet above MSL, and irrigation and drainage regulators be constructed across the Upputeru channel. It also calls for checking encroachments, regulate and monitor pollution, clear the lake of weeds and use them as compost and raw material to produce biogas. Pisciculture, a bird sanctuary and tourism were also on the cards. The government, however, did not allot funds for these activities.
In 1986, the MoEF, GoI identified Kolleru as a wetland of national importance for intensive conservation and management purposes under National Wetland Program for its ecological and socio economic importance.
In 1999, the state government declared Kolleru as a wildlife sanctuary (by the GO Ms No 120 dated October 4) and delineated the area up to +5 feet above MSL (~30855.20 ha) as protected area.
In 2002, the wetland was identified under Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance, covering the total lake. The Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary forms an integral part of the wetland system.

, the wetland was identified under Ramsar Convention as a wetland of international importance, covering the total lake. The Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary forms an integral part of the wetland system.

63 4.6 Ecological impacts of changing environment The changing environmental set-up of the Kolleru Lake has brought in notable consequences to the faunal and floral components of the ecosystem. 4.6.1 Eutrophication The lake’s eutrophication and deterioration in ecological health has occurred steadily and consistently. As discussed earlier Kolleru lake receives large quantity of nutrients, leading to eutrophication. Eutrophication is known to cause wide changes in structure and function of aquatic systems (Smith et al., 1999). Rise in turbidity, increase in phytoplankton biomass, blooms of toxic or inedible phytoplankton and gelatinous zooplankton, decline in the biomass of benthic and epiphytic algae, changes in macrophyte species composition and biomass, fall in dissolved oxygen, fish kills, change in species composition of fish and other fauna, reductions in harvestable fish and shellfish and fall in aesthetic value of the water body are some common consequences of eutrophication.

Variations in water level, human pressure on land and increasing landscape modification have added to further deterioration of the lake. Huge quantities of inorganic fertilizers are used in the catchment area for agriculture which is likely to increase with augmented irrigation as and when the Polavaram right canal becomes functional.

e quantities of inorganic fertilizers are used in the catchment area for agriculture which is likely to increase with augmented irrigation as and when the Polavaram right canal becomes functional. As a result of leaching and run-off, it is estimated that about one fourth of the fertilizers will end up in the lake (Gopalakrishnayya, 1999). Within the lake area also considerable quantities of fertilizers and pesticides are used in agriculture. Added to this are the fish tanks discharges with high nutrient content and other residues.

The nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates are recorded very high in the lake leading to various consequences including luxurious growth of macrophytes which have adaptive advantage of drawing nutrient from the lake sediments as well as water column. The expanding rooted and floating weeds aid trapping suspended sediments and other materials, and reduce the flow of water augmenting further eutrophication of the lake.

as well as water column. The expanding rooted and floating weeds aid trapping suspended sediments and other materials, and reduce the flow of water augmenting further eutrophication of the lake.

64 4.6.2 Flora As noted above the Kolleru is rich in floral biodiversity. But the land use changes, changes in water quality and other environmental changes is reflected in floral composition as well. Invasive species such as Eichhorrnia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes and Salvinia molesta have spread over the lake, clogging many areas and filling several open water areas. The spread of floating weeds would have serious impacts on the submerged, algal and epiphytic flora as well. However, such changes in Kolleru so far remain largely un-documented and needs further investigations. Phragmites karka seems to have invaded all the exposed areas in the lake especially towards the lower ends.
4.6.3 Avifauna The Lake Kolleru has been habitat for a variety of waterfowl; resident, migratory, rare and endangered species since time immemorial. It acts as a staging post and refueling station for migratory birds on their onward journey. Birdwatchers have been conducting bird census in January of every year in different parts of the lake. The data available on bird census is shown (Figure 21) below:

Figure 21: Bird abundance recorded in Kolleru Source: Data from Wildlife Management Division, Eluru

The conspicuous waterfowl in the lake include ducks, teals, storks, egrets, herons, ibises, bitterns, cormorants and a number of waders (Figure 22).

ata from Wildlife Management Division, Eluru

The conspicuous waterfowl in the lake include ducks, teals, storks, egrets, herons, ibises, bitterns, cormorants and a number of waders (Figure 22). Large numbers of Lesser Whistling teals were recorded in 1997. Rare and vulnerable species seen here

65 are the Garganey, Shoveller, Redcrested Pochard, White-eyed Pochard, Tufted Duck and Ruddy Shelduck. Gulls, terns and some raptors were also recorded.

Figure 22: A mixed flock of birds in the lake Kolleru Source: Mr AK Sinha, Conservator of Forests, Eluru

Mr Mackenzie, then collector recorded in the Manual of Krishna District in the Presidency of Madras (1883) that colonies of Pelicans were fostered in several villages. In 1949, Prof Neelakantan discovered breeding colonies of Spot billed Pelican at Kolamuru, Aredu and Sarepalli which continued till about 1970. Lamba (1963) found many more breeding areas in and around the lake. 3000 pelicans were recorded by Gee (1960) during his visit to Kolleru in January. In 1972, Mr Pushpa Kumar, the then Chief Wildlife Warden, recorded some pelicans. But, on visiting again in 1973, he could not find any pelicans. Guttikar visited the lake in 1975 and reported that the pelicans had deserted the area (Guttikar, 1978). In 1979, Mr S Ashok Kumar, Life Member, Birdwatcher's society of AP, visited the lake; however could not find a single bird. Spot billed Pelican (Pelicanus phillippensis) is a species included in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in the Red Data Book.

d the lake; however could not find a single bird. Spot billed Pelican (Pelicanus phillippensis) is a species included in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and in the Red Data Book. It is a resident species considered endangered based on six years of census in India. Rose and Scott (1994) while reporting Spot billed pelican population in South and South East Asia to be around 11500 noted a perceptible trend of decrease in its population. The species is considered a “globally threatened species” under the category “vulnerable” (BirdLife International, 2001; Mistnet, 2003).

66 The Pelicans also lost Matlam-Pedalanka and Garisipudi-Ollanka-Nidamarru mangrove forests for the area was de-reserved and converted into agricultural fields. Earlier the villagers protected the birds but later on they became indifferent. The false notion that the guano of the birds encouraged weed growth, and the birds alight in the paddy fields at night to catch fish damaging the crop led to the villagers replacing dominant Palmyra with coconut palms on the bunds. There was low availability of fish in the lake water for various reasons such as pollution and habitat changes discussed above. The change in tree cover in the belt area and outer fringes of the lake bed deprived the birds of nesting material and nesting sites. Large scale poaching of the birds with nets, shooting, poisoning and theft of their eggs also forced the birds to desert the area.

Subsequent to the Operation Kolleru, the pelicans appeared again there, after almost three decades (Figure 23).

ing, poisoning and theft of their eggs also forced the birds to desert the area.

Subsequent to the Operation Kolleru, the pelicans appeared again there, after almost three decades (Figure 23). During the visit of the committee in September 2010, we could find about a dozen of these birds in the area. Prof Bharathalaxmi, Sri Ch Balasubrahmanyam and Birdwatchers Society of Andhra Pradesh team recorded the presence Spoon-billed Sandpiper and Water Cock post “Operation Kolleru”. During our visit, Bank mynas which were relatively rare were also sighted. In all 117 species of birds were spotted in three days. The team also noticed significant decrease in coots and black winged stilts. After the “Operation Kolleru”, the Forest Department raised some bunds in the areas frequented by birds and planted Acacia sp. Some of these bunds were still seen in the Atapaka area. Raising of these bunds and planting of trees such as Acacia nilotica, Barringtonia acutangula and Borassus flabellifer has to be taken up on a larger scale to provide growing demand for nesting material and nesting sites for birds.

of trees such as Acacia nilotica, Barringtonia acutangula and Borassus flabellifer has to be taken up on a larger scale to provide growing demand for nesting material and nesting sites for birds.

67 Figure 23: Pelicans / birds have returned

4.6.4 Other faunal forms The changes in the floral and environmental changes had apparent impacts on the faunal forms of the lake. Species such as apple snail has reduced considerably. Apple snail is one of the important food species for storks. Similarly several fish species have reportedly disappeared and the fish species composition has changed skewed towards air breathing species.

After establishment of shrimp farms, Apple snail (Pila virens), the staple food of Asian Open billed stork (Anastomus oscitans), was being collected for feeding tiger shrimp (Penaeus monodon) to fatten it. Consequently large-scale commercial

68 exploitation of this snail in and around Kolleru has led to 60% destruction of its population (Seshagiri Rao and Varhala Raju, 1996). Impacts of shrimp farms on wetlands has been documented widely (E.g. Thornton et al., 2003)

Culture fisheries operations on such a large scale have actually affected the native species in the lake resulting in their decline or local extinction.

mented widely (E.g. Thornton et al., 2003)

Culture fisheries operations on such a large scale have actually affected the native species in the lake resulting in their decline or local extinction. According to Dr Seshagiri Rao (Former Head of the Zoology Department, DNR College, Bhimavaram) nine species belonging to Cyprinidae family, one species belonging to Cyprinodontidae family, three species belonging to the Centroponidae family and two species belonging to Mugilidae family have either became rare or disappeared from the lake due to the inland aquaculture. This would have affected the livelihood of the traditional fisher-men living on the lake and prey availability to piscivorous birds.
4.6.5 Submersion of paddy fields in the belt villages Many of the belt and bed villages in Kolleru are prone to flood and submergence of their crops as shown in the Table 15. As discussed earlier for various reasons floods are frequent. Several committees (Mitra, 1966; Pandurangan, 1976; Ramakrishnan, 1980; Sivaramakrishnaiah, 1980) have been constituted to identify and propose actions for development of the area and to mitigate the troubles from floods. They came up with several recommendations, many of which still remain only on paper.

During the heavy rains that lashed West Godavari and Krishna districts from 16th to 19th September and 15th to 17th of October, 2005, farmers in belt villages, beyond +5 contour levels, were badly affected due to submersion of their paddy crops.

and Krishna districts from 16th to 19th September and 15th to 17th of October, 2005, farmers in belt villages, beyond +5 contour levels, were badly affected due to submersion of their paddy crops. The then Chief Minister made an aerial survey of the submerged area in 20 affected villages. This was followed by a visit by Group of Ministers (GoM) to some of the areas around the lake in both the districts on 23-10-2005 and interaction with the affected farmers. A review meeting was also held by the GoM chaired by the Honorable Minister for Agriculture on the same day. Further, a high level meeting was conducted with the top officials of revenue, irrigation, forest and police departments on 27-10-05 at Hyderabad on ways and means of draining out of the flood waters from submerged areas beyond +5 feet contour for an immediate relief to the affected farmers.

On 29-10-2005, a meeting was held under the Chairmanship of District Collector, West Godavari at Eluru with police, forest, revenue, irrigation and roads & buildings department officials of both the districts on removing obstructions and barriers that curbed free flow of water of the lake into the Upputeru. To deal with the problem of inundation 45 Action teams were formed by the District collector, West Godavari (vide Rc D4/7009/05 dated 14-11-2005). The Collector had also supervised the works of removal of obstructions for allowing free flow of water.

s were formed by the District collector, West Godavari (vide Rc D4/7009/05 dated 14-11-2005). The Collector had also supervised the works of removal of obstructions for allowing free flow of water.

In the replies submitted to the Central Empowered Committee, the Principal Secretary, EFS&T Department, AP Government in the letter dated 14-2-2006 stated that the ‘adjacent agricultural fields of Kolleru area were inundated / submerged during heavy rains in almost all years due to backflow of waters from the 67 in falling drains of Kolleru which are being obstructed by existing fish tanks below +5 contour resulting in the occurrence of low profitability / loss. The area of submersion and submergence of paddy fields by rain / flood water has been increasing year by year. During 2003-2004 inundation continued for 15 days with little crop loss but during 2005-2006 this period lasted for 60 to 75 days resulting in heavy crop loss. This is due to increase in number of fish tanks in Kolleru belt and bed villages which obstructed flood water draining into the sea’. A four member team headed by Mr Dharmendra Sarma, Joint Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, also visited the flood hit areas.

As proliferation of fish tanks with high rise bunds below and above +5 feet contour had aggravated flooding, “Operation Kolleru” was undertaken in 2006. Despite large number of demolitions of fish farms there are several reports that the fish tanks were formed afresh and operating.

d aggravated flooding, “Operation Kolleru” was undertaken in 2006. Despite large number of demolitions of fish farms there are several reports that the fish tanks were formed afresh and operating. Added to this, nearly ten consecutive low pressure formations in the Bay of Bengal in July, August, September and October 2010 close to the Andhra coast kept the monsoon vigorous resulting in incessant rains. Consequently several rivulets and steams like Tammileru, Jalleru, Errakalva, Bayyeru, Sanga, Pulivagu and Kovvada canals carried heavy flood flows.

Tammileru drains into Kolleru after passing through the Nagireddygudem reservoir. Because of the sudden inflow of 21000 cusecs of water from this reservoir into the

70 lake, on the 29-8-2010 night, the causeways across the Tammileru linking Eluru to Ammannapeta, Ponnangi, Kothuru and Sreeparru were submerged disrupting traffic. The localities on the outskirts of Eluru were also submerged.

At the field meetings (during the visit of the present Committee on 20-25 September 2010) some speakers pointed out that even after demolition of the tanks, there is flooding (Table 16) which is mainly because the drains and vents are choked and that flooding was not due to fish tanks. This is far from truth as even today, fish farms are thriving in Nidamarru and Bhimadole mandals and would have reasonable role in impeding the flood flow and in the submergence of the area around the sanctuary.

m truth as even today, fish farms are thriving in Nidamarru and Bhimadole mandals and would have reasonable role in impeding the flood flow and in the submergence of the area around the sanctuary. The recent heavy rains have highlighted the need for appropriate channelization, clearing debris from demolition of fish tanks, clearing extensive weed growth and removal of all the fish tanks.

5 KOLLERU LAKE - CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT HISTORY The lake Kolleru has an eventful conservation and management history, perhaps starting in the late nineteenth century with Mr Mackenzie’s visit. In late forties of the last century the pioneer bird watcher Prof Neelakandan, made extensive investigation and spotted an active pelicanry in the “outskirts of Sarepalli to Aredu” in the area. Further to that several eminent wild lifers and ecologists of the country visited the area, explored and documented the avian richness and habitat uniqueness of the area. As noted earlier the conservation importance of the lake has been relatively well documented. The importance of the lake both from the point of view of its ecological services and socio-economic and cultural importance also have been well apprised of.
The need for declaring the area as a protected area was well recognized. That led to the declaration of the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary in 1999. Further, in due course of time a larger extent has been declared as Ramsar Site and also has been identified as an important bird area.

o the declaration of the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary in 1999. Further, in due course of time a larger extent has been declared as Ramsar Site and also has been identified as an important bird area. However, the conservation action has led to a series of litigations and interventions by the high court of Andhra Pradesh and later Supreme Court of India. A brief chronology of events is presented below.
1995: A notification under Section 18 of the Wild Life (Protection) was issued (GO Ms No 76 EFS&T dated 25-09-1995) by the Government of Andhra Pradesh declaring the areas specified in the Schedule as a Wild Life Sanctuary called as “Kolleru Wild Life Sanctuary”. The Schedule indicated the boundaries and mandal wise list of villages. At the beginning of the notification, 10 mandals were mentioned. However, only 38 villages classified as bed villages (Inside) and belt villages (in the periphery and above +5) in 5 mandals were mentioned in the last paragraph of the GO. There appears some discrepancy in the list of areas covered by the GO. Name of Nandiwada mandal that appeared in the first paragraph of the GO is not found in the last paragraph of the same GO. The details of villages are another discrepancy. The rationale for choosing +5feet contour was also not stated in the GO. 1998: A writ petition was filed in High Court of Andhra Pradesh by Dr. Patanjali Sastry, Environmentalist from Rajahmundry (WP No 33587 of 1998) requesting for a direction to the state government to stop pollution of lake

filed in High Court of Andhra Pradesh by Dr. Patanjali Sastry, Environmentalist from Rajahmundry (WP No 33587 of 1998) requesting for a direction to the state government to stop pollution of lake

72 from discharging industrial effluents, to stop construction of houses and roads, to check the conversion of hundreds of acres of land into fish ponds and to check bird hunting in the catchment of the lake. 1999: GO Ms No 120, Environment, Forest, Science and Technology (For. III) Department dated 4-10-1999 published in the AP Gazette on 5-10-1999 was issued notifying the Sanctuary. The notification was issued under Section 26- A of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. 308 km2 of the lake, falling below +5 feet contour, was declared as Wild Life Sanctuary (Appendix 11, Appendix 14). Of the sanctuary area 62276.55 acres was government land and 14861.33 acres private patta land (Source: Presentation by JC, West Godavari on 25-09- 10 at Eluru Collectorate before the Committee and note from the Conservator of Forests, Eluru). However, in connection with this declaration, no attempt is known to have made to conduct a proper survey of the whole area focusing on its wetland / ecological characteristics, depth profile and re-confirmation of the so-called contours. In the boundary description in the GO 120, it was mentioned that the boundary runs along the contour +5 feet MSL. Mandal wise details of area in hectares covered by the Sanctuary in both the districts were also mentioned (Table 18) in the Government Order.

that the boundary runs along the contour +5 feet MSL. Mandal wise details of area in hectares covered by the Sanctuary in both the districts were also mentioned (Table 18) in the Government Order. While the preliminary notification mentioned 38 villages falling in five Mandals, 74 villages in 9 Mandals were notified in final notification. However, the reasons for these variations were not mentioned in the final notification.

Table 18: Mandal wise boundary discrepancies of the Kolleru WLS Mandal Village as per Area (hectare) as per GO 120 Area (hectare) as to be amended* GO 76 GO 120 District Krishna 1 Kaikaluru 13 21 4117.81 6692.6 2 Mandavalli 08 08 2943.81 3442.20 District West Godavari 3 Elluru 10 11 9560.00 9560.00 4 Bhimadole 04 06 8129.00 8129.00 5 Nidamarru 03 11 2735.30 2735.30 6 Akiveedu Nil 10 2765.62 2765.62 7 Denduluru Nil 03 234.23 234.23 8 Pedapadu Nil 03 315.72 315.72 9 Unguturu Nil 01 53.71 53.71

29.00 5 Nidamarru 03 11 2735.30 2735.30 6 Akiveedu Nil 10 2765.62 2765.62 7 Denduluru Nil 03 234.23 234.23 8 Pedapadu Nil 03 315.72 315.72 9 Unguturu Nil 01 53.71 53.71

73 Total 38 74 30855.20

*Source: Letter from DFO (Wildlife Management Division, Eluru) Ref No 374/2002/WLM dated 28/04/2002

1999: By the time the area under the sanctuary was notified, 27,910 acres of government land and 19,565 acres of private land i.e. a total of 47,475 acres is under occupation leaving only 29,663 acres without any encumbrances (Lr from Principal Secretary, EFS&T dated 14/02/2006 to the CEC). This includes also the encroachments to an extent of 8724 acres that took place after 1995 notification leaving an effective area of 20,939 acres without any occupations.
1999: The Kolleru Fishermen and Small Scale Farmers Association also filed a writ petition before High Court of Andhra Pradesh complaining that government was not taking steps to stop pollution of the lake by industries and municipalities. 1999-2000: The Kolleru Fishermen and Agricultural Small Farmers Association (Prathikolla Lanka, Eluru Mandal), Dr Ambedkar Harijan Fisherman Cooperative Society Ltd (Bogapuram village, W.G. Dt.) and Dr Ambedkar Co-operative Collective Farming Society Ltd (Bogapuram village), filed writ petitions (WP Nos 23210 of 1999 and 4350 and 4375 of 2000) seeking to declare the notification of the Government (GO Ms No 120) as illegal, unconstitutional and violative of Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution and consequently to set it aside.

of 2000) seeking to declare the notification of the Government (GO Ms No 120) as illegal, unconstitutional and violative of Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution and consequently to set it aside. 2001: Two residents of Vadlakutitippa village, Kaikaluru Mandal, Krishna District, filed appeals (WP No 2354 of 2001) questioning the action of interfering with repairing works undertaken to their fish / prawn tanks and praying for direction declaring the action of interfering with the rights of the petitioners to repair their fish/prawn tanks in the lands to the extent of Acres 7 and Acres 6 (in S Nos 116/1A, 117/1 to 7) of Vadlakutitippa village, h/o Penchikalamarru, Kaikalur mandal, Krishna District as arbitrary, illegal and violative of the Articles 14, 19, 21 and 300-A of the Constitution of India. 2001: Sri Yerneni Nagendranath, a former member of the State Drainage Board sought (WP No 12497 of 2001) in larger interest of preserving the lake to
o remove all encroachments of Kolleru lake bed area up to +5 feet contour level according to the GO Ms No 120,

ge Board sought (WP No 12497 of 2001) in larger interest of preserving the lake to
o remove all encroachments of Kolleru lake bed area up to +5 feet contour level according to the GO Ms No 120,

74 o direct to remove all obstructions to free flow of water in Kolleru lake at its normal monsoon level (+7 Contour) in pursuance of the international obligations on India being a signatory of Ramsar Convention, o prevent discharge of untreated urban sewage, industrial effluents and residues from fertilizers and pesticides used in aquaculture etc., into the lake, and
o remove obstructions to the natural course of rivulets and other sluices to all roads laid and proposed to be laid in the lake area. There was several further judicial and other interventions regarding the lake system as listed below: o 2001: High Court dismissed the petition of 1999 and advised the government to adhere to the standards laid down by Ministry of Environment and Forests regarding lakes and effluents. o 2002: Kolleru Fishermen Cooperative Society moved Supreme Court seeking to protect people’s right to life in the area.

down by Ministry of Environment and Forests regarding lakes and effluents. o 2002: Kolleru Fishermen Cooperative Society moved Supreme Court seeking to protect people’s right to life in the area. o 2005: Restoration work for the Lake started o 2005: Sri Pranay Waghray approached the Supreme Court for implementation of the High Court order o 2006: The Central Empowered Committee (CEC) appointed by Supreme Court directed the state government to remove all encroachments in the Kolleru Lake area o 2006: The Supreme Court upheld the directions issued by the Central Empowered Committee o 2006: Demolitions of aqua farms completed by 15-06-2006 o 2006: Certain schemes for providing better livelihood were promised by government for the affected population and Alternate Livelihood Programmes were implemented

Despite all issues related with the declaration of the sanctuary, its management, and conflicts with the local residents, it is amusing to be intimated that, except for the higher officials, the rest of staff including forest guards and other field staff managing the Kolleru Wildlife Sanctuary are temporary employees. Nevertheless, 744 forest offences were booked and 1278 persons were arrested and sent to judicial remand as

75 on 06-10-06. Six check posts (4 in West Godavari and 2 in Krishna) were also established and ex-servicemen were posted to man these check posts.

ons were arrested and sent to judicial remand as

75 on 06-10-06. Six check posts (4 in West Godavari and 2 in Krishna) were also established and ex-servicemen were posted to man these check posts.

6 LEGAL ISSUES RELATED TO THE SANCTUARY NOTIFICATION Kolleru has gone through wide changes in land use, ecological setup and such like as discussed earlier, and has also experienced various actions of legal nature with wide implications on the ecological, conservational and socio-economic aspects of the area. A brief on these issues are given below.
6.1 Legal history of Kolleru Sanctuary The legislative history of Kolleru lake is important to understand especially the manner in which the state has treated the lake over the years. This will put in right perspective, the recent issues relating to the Kolleru.
6.1.1 1951: Kolleru Lake Bed Area, not desirable to assign land; efforts of Revenue Department The erstwhile Government of Andhra Pradesh issued a notification way back in 19511
in which the Government considered that it is not desirable to assign the land in the Kolleru lake bed area to anybody.
6.1.2 1955-1961: Lease subject to conditions for the lake bed areas of Kolleru
The process of assigning the lake bed areas started in 1955 where the Government changed its earlier stance and orders were issued prescribing conditions for assigning the kollair lake bed lands2. This was applicable only to the West Godavari District which was later made applicable to Krishna District in 19613.

rs were issued prescribing conditions for assigning the kollair lake bed lands2. This was applicable only to the West Godavari District which was later made applicable to Krishna District in 19613.
6.1.3 1963: Closed Area in 1963 under Wild Birds and Animals Act of 1912; The larger universe of Kolleru
Subsequently, the Government of Andhra Pradesh declared an area of 20 miles radius from lake Kolleru as a closed area for protection of Grey Pelicans under Sections 2 & 3 of the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, 19124. Clearly the area was thought to be important even before the enactment of the Wildlife Protection Act in 19725.

1 G.O. Ms No. 551 Rev dated 8.3.1951 2 G.O. Ms. No 135 Dated 18.1.1955 3 G.O. Ms. No 665 dated 14.4. 1961 4 vide GO MS. No. 1986 F&A Department dated 11.09.1963 5 Source: Application of Pranay Waghre et al in the CEC C.W.P. 202 of 1995

77 6.1.4 1976: Revenue Department’s Largesse without taking into cognizance of the closed area While the state thought, on one hand about the ecological importance of the lake, on the other, this was followed by Collector Krishna’s proposal submitted to the Government of Andhra Pradesh on 30.5.19756 to the Government to assign such bed lands of Ac 0.50 cents of land in each case to fishermen for the development of fisheries in Kollair (now Kolleru) and also to enable the beneficiaries to secure the institutional credit on the security of these lands from the Central Land Mortgage

rmen for the development of fisheries in Kollair (now Kolleru) and also to enable the beneficiaries to secure the institutional credit on the security of these lands from the Central Land Mortgage Bank and other Cooperative Financing Institutions and hence the request to relax the GO of 1951 mentioned above. Thus the administrator considered livelihood equally important. This proposal was accepted by the Board of Revenue7 where the above proposal was approved; however it was subject to certain conditions:

a) That the land would be liable to be resumed not only if they are alienated or transferred but also used for the purposes other than fisheries development. b) That the area chosen for assignment for fisheries development should be the area identified and determined by the Special Team appointed by the Government8.
c) That the land will not be utilized for cultivation purposes. The Government recommended such proposals and directed that Ac 0.5 cents of the land of Kollair (now Kolleru) lake bed area be assigned free of cost wherever necessary to fishers for fisheries development. It further directed that the assignees be permitted to mortgage these lands to secure institutional loans from the Central Land mortgage Banks and Other Cooperative Financing Institutions.
6.1.5 1976: Wetland of National Importance
Interestingly in the same year (1976), the same area was declared as a wetland of national importance.

6 Collector’s Krishna Lt No.

Importance
Interestingly in the same year (1976), the same area was declared as a wetland of national importance.

6 Collector’s Krishna Lt No. 6676/74 dated 30.5.1975 7 Board of Rev Ref 13/959/74 dated 26.11.75 8 Special Team appointed by the Government in GO Ms No 664 Irrigation and Power Department dated 9.8.1975

78 6.1.6 1979: Exceptions to conditions on cultivation in lake bed areas; Coconut plantation and similar horticulture allowed In 1979 the conditions to assignment of land in the tank bed area was modified and coconut plantations and similar horticulture activities were permitted on the banks of the tanks.
6.1.7 1984-1986: Assignment of Lands; D Form Patta lands
In 1984, Government Orders were issued where Government lands were assigned “D” Form Patta to landless poor persons9. What is equally important to understand is that such Pattas are allotted with conditions. A typical patta clearly states that:

Conditions of a D –Form patta

The land shall be used for agricultural purpose only. It shall not be used for any other purpose.
The land handed over shall be enjoyed by his heirs and it shall not be alienated. As per A.P. Prohibition of transfer of government agricultural land, the land handed over shall not be transferred.
The person to whom the above land has been handed over, either under his personal supervision or the supervision of his family members should cultivate the land engaging agricultural labour.

d. 3. The person to whom the above land has been handed over, either under his personal supervision or the supervision of his family members should cultivate the land engaging agricultural labour. The land handed over shall be cultivated within three years from the date of issue of this patta. 4. According to Land Revenue Legislation, as amended from time to time, all taxes, local taxes shall be payable. 5. The handed over land shall not be kept waste or abandoned or damaged by excavating earth etc from the land. 6. If it is found that handing over of this land is illegal or approved by oversight or based on wrong report or deceit or the officer authorised to hand over the land has exceeded the powers vested in or if it is found that there are irregularities in procedure, this patta is liable for cancellation. In case of such cancellation, the person possessing this patta shall not claim any compensation for the improvements made to the land. 7. The customary rights of the government or the easement rights of the people with regard to use of roads, tracts, streams, canals or drains in the land or around the land handed over shall not be violated. 8. The government shall have the right over underground minerals and other natural resources. 9. For violation of any or all the above mentioned conditions, the government shall have the right of resumption. After resumption by the concerned government officials, the land shall be under the full control of the government. 10.

ove mentioned conditions, the government shall have the right of resumption. After resumption by the concerned government officials, the land shall be under the full control of the government. 10. The government shall take possession of the land in case the land is required for any project or for any public purpose. In such an event, no compensation shall be payable. The decision taken either by the government or by the authorised officers that the land is required for a project or for a public purpose shall be final. This land cannot be sold or purchased.

9 G.O. Ms. No 180 Rev ( n) Dept., Dt. 9.2.84 and G.O. Ms. No. 603 Rev ( B) Dept., 28.5.1986

6.1.7.1 Compensation for resumption of government assigned land for public purpose; submergence of assigned land in major and medium irrigation and power project10:

The assignment of D form pattas to landless poor which may come under submersion due to major, medium irrigation and power projects or industrial projects may be resumed and the assignees shall be paid compensation on “compassionate ground” a the market value similar to patta lands that have been acquired under the Land Acquisition Act as applicable in Andhra Pradesh. The rationale of the government is ensuring livelihood by virtue of such resumption and the order mandates that ex-gratia equivalent to the market value should be paid subject to certain conditions. The conditions are as follows:

Conditions of Compensation:
a. That the amount is to be treated as ex-gratia b.

ia equivalent to the market value should be paid subject to certain conditions. The conditions are as follows:

Conditions of Compensation:
a. That the amount is to be treated as ex-gratia b. That the assignees would not be entitled for marking references under section 18 and section 28 A of the Land Acquisition Act to the courts. c. An amount equivalent to 15% for the lands resumed prior to 30-4-82 and 30% after that date on the market value payable under Section 23(1) of Land Acquisitions Act may be considered for being included in the total ex-gratia payable to the assignees is solatium. d. That the assignees will not be entitled for interest or an additional market value under the Land Acquisition Act. e. That the above conditions shall be made applicable to all the assigned lands resumed on or after 9/2/1984 (i.e. the date of issue of G.O.M.S. No. 180, Revenue dated 9/2/84, in supersession of G.O. Ms. No. 43, Revenue (s) Department) dated 23/1/88.

In case of irrigation projects, specific GO was issued in 200111 where the categories of enjoyers / encroachers of government lands were prescribed.

o. 43, Revenue (s) Department) dated 23/1/88.

In case of irrigation projects, specific GO was issued in 200111 where the categories of enjoyers / encroachers of government lands were prescribed. This was reconsidered and a generic GO was issued in March 2010 12 where three categories of persons are described for payment of ex-gratia in case of acquisition of such land as follows:
Category A: To pay ex-gratia for the lands to DKT pattas holders Category B: Un-objectionable land under the enjoyment of eligible encroachers for a long period without “D” form pattas and whose possession is confirmed by entries in 10(1) and the Adangal accounts they may be paid ex-gratia which is equivalent to market value without Solatium. Category C: Unobjectionable lands under enjoyment of the eligible encroachers and whose names are recorded only in the Adangal; they may be paid ex-gratia which is 50% of the market value for deprivation of livelihood. No. Solatium would be payable.

10 See G.O.M. S. no. 1307 dated 23.12.1993 (Revenue Assignment (1) Department ) 11 See G.O. Ms. No. 639, Revenue (Assn. IV ) Department dated 20.9.2001 12 G.O. MsNo. 243 dated 27.03.2010 (Revenue (Land Acquisiton) Department)

ed 23.12.1993 (Revenue Assignment (1) Department ) 11 See G.O. Ms. No. 639, Revenue (Assn. IV ) Department dated 20.9.2001 12 G.O. MsNo. 243 dated 27.03.2010 (Revenue (Land Acquisiton) Department)

80 Category D: Persons who have purchased assigned lands from DKT Patta holders, will not be entitled to any ex-gratia as it amounts to violation of the conditions of assignment and contravention of the provisions of AP Assigned lands (PQT) Act, 1977 The payment of ex-gratia / compensation for the eligible encroachers covered under items (ii) and (iii) above may be made after the personal inspection by the Joint Collector of the concerned district.
6.2 The process of making part of Kolleru a Protected Area under the Wildlife Protection Act 6.2.1 1995: Intention to Declare a Sanctuary; Consequence
After the passage of the Wildlife Protection Act in 1972 which was made applicable to the state of Andhra Pradesh in 1973, through an Intention Notification under Section 18 of the Wildlife Protection Act, the area was proposed to be declared a sanctuary on 25/09/1995. It’s important to understand the consequence of intention notification under the Wildlife Act and in fact the settlement of rights process under the WLPA. This is most crucial to understand as the entire dispute in Kolleru seems to revolve around the rights of various stake holders within and around the Kolleru Sanctuary.

hts process under the WLPA. This is most crucial to understand as the entire dispute in Kolleru seems to revolve around the rights of various stake holders within and around the Kolleru Sanctuary.
6.2.2 Settlement of rights process under the Wildlife Protection Act and its status in Kolleru Let us understand the settlement of rights process under the WLPA and its implication and status in Kolleru area.

The settlement of rights within protected areas including sanctuaries is a mandatory requirement for it to be finally notified especially in the wake of 1991 amendment to the WLPA13. Broadly, the settlement of rights process may be classified into six stages: 6.2.2.1 Stage I- Intention and Bar of accrual of any new rights Firstly there is an intention notification which describes any area which may be of ecological, faunal, floral, geo-morphological or geological, natural or zoological significance that is proposed to be a Sanctuary. In the case of Sanctuaries any such proposed area does not include Reserve Forest (RF) and Territorial Waters. There is a

13 Prior to 1991, any land could be declared as a finally notified sanctuary and the rights within it cold be settled subsequently.

rs. There is a

13 Prior to 1991, any land could be declared as a finally notified sanctuary and the rights within it cold be settled subsequently.

81 separate procedure for declaring RF and Territorial Waters as Sanctuaries14. The intention notification is required to describe the situation and limit of the proposed protected area by roads, rivers, ridges etc., under Section 18 of WLPA. The consequence of intention notification for a Sanctuary was that the provisions of sections 27 to 33A (both inclusive) shall come into effect forthwith (i.e., restrictions on entry, regulation of permit, destruction within a sanctuary, prohibition on fire or use of weapons or injurious substance that may affect wildlife, or regulation of grazing and livestock would come into affect despite the fact that the settlement of rights within such areas have not been effected. As stated earlier, the intention notification for Kolleru Sanctuary was issued on 25/09/199515.

• Bar on Accrual of any new rights after intention notification: Further after the issuance of Section 18 notification under Section 20 of the WLPA, no right shall be acquired in, on, or over the land comprised within the limits of the area specified in such notification. The only exception to this general rule is those rights that accrue vide succession, testamentary or intestate. Thus it is clear that there is complete bar on accrual of any new rights in a proposed sanctuary and any change in that area would be a legal violation of such a notification.

entary or intestate. Thus it is clear that there is complete bar on accrual of any new rights in a proposed sanctuary and any change in that area would be a legal violation of such a notification.

By this statutory provision, any new aright between 25/09/1995 and 4/10/1999 would be illegal. Two temporal maps between these two significant legal dates clearly suggests that several illegal rights or entitlements were created between these two dates owing to the delay in settlement of right process.
6.2.2.2 Stage II-Determination of Rights by the Collector This stage is extremely crucial as the Collector of the district is mandated to inquire into and determine the existence, nature and extent of right of any person (emphasis given) within the limits of such proposed sanctuary under Section 19 of the WLPA.

14 Note that this was not the situation pre 1991 where any area including reserve forests or territorial waters could be declared a sanctuary. The 1991 exception was under the assumption that there was an existing process under the Indian Forest Act or respective state Forest Acts
15 See G.O Ms. No. 76 Environment, Forest, Science and Technology ( Forest-III) Department dated 25.09.1995.

82 6.2.2.3 Stage III-Proclamation Notification The District Collector or any officer so authorized is required t

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